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I 



GEOFFREY CHAUCER 



A SHORT HISTORY OF 

ENGLAND'S AND 
AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



BY 

EVA MARCH TAPPAN, Ph. D. 

Formerly of the English Department, English High School, Worcester, 
Mass. ; Author of ' "England' 's Story" " Our Country 's 
Story," "Robin Hood His Book,'''' " Old Ballads 
in Prose," "The Christ Story " etc. 




BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY 




LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

APR 14 1906 
si* Qopyright Entry 

class a,'io&t£ 
////Go q 

COPY B/ 



COPYRIGHT 1905 AND 1906 BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



PREFACE 



This book is based upon the following convictions : — 

1. That the prime object of studying literature is to 
develop the ability to enjoy it. 

2. That in every work of literary merit there is some- 
thing to enjoy. 

3. That it is less important to know the list of an au- 
thor's works than to feel the impulse to read one of 
them. 

4. That it is better to know a few authors well than to 
learn the names of many. 

To select those few authors with due regard to what 
is good in itself and what is historically of value, to choose 
from the hundreds whose writings have made for literary 
excellence, is under no circumstances an easy task. It 
is especially difficult — and especially delightful — for 
one who can echo most honestly the words of the French 
critic, "En litterature j'aime tout." 

EVA MARCH TAPPAN. 

Worcester, Massachusetts, 
January, 1905. 



CONTENTS 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 
CHAPTER I 

Centuries V-XI 
THE EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 

PAGE 

Our English ancestors — The scop — Growth of the epic — Beo- 
wulf; effect of Christianity on the poem — Form of early English 
poetry — Widsith — Deor's Lament — Exeter Book — Vercelli 
Book — Caedmon — Cynewulf ; runes ; Dream of the Rood— 
Early English poetry as a whole — Bede ; Ecclesiastical His- 
tory ; his English writings — Alcuin — Danish invasions — 
Alfred the Great ; his translations ; his language ; Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle — The kingdom at Alfred's death — Literature during 
the tenth and eleventh centuries — Cause of degeneracy — Ho- 
milies of ^Elfric — Re-writing of old poems — Other writings — 
Influence of the Celts — Difference between Celts and Teutons 

— Needs of English literature I 

CHAPTER II 

Centuries XII and XIII 
THE NORMAN-ENGLISH PERIOD 

Advantages of the Conquest — The Normans — Struggle between 
the two languages — The new English — New influences ; Nor- 
man intellectual tastes ; opening of the universities ; crusades — 
Chronicles — Ormulum — Ancren Riwle — Four cycles of ro- 
mance — History of the Arthur cycle — The Chronicle ends — 
French romances ; King Horn — Lyrics — Robin Hood ballads 

— Value of the Norman-English writings 25 



VI 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER III 

Century XIV 

Chaucer's century 

Beginning of English thought — Feudal system — Changed condi- 
tion of the peasants — Discontent with the church — Peasants' 
Revolt — " Sir John Mandeville " — Langland ; Piers Plow- 
man — Wyclif ; his translation of the Bible; persecution — 
Chaucer ; plan of Boccaccio and of Chaucer ; pilgrimages ; Can- 
terbury Tales ; Chaucer's style ; his characters ; his love of na- 
ture; his death; his influence on the language 35 

CHAPTER IV 
Century XV 

THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 

The imitators of Chaucer ; James I ; The King's Quair — Sir 
Thomas Malory; Morte d" Arthur — Lack of good literature — 
Gain of the " common folk " — Ballads ; marks of a ballad ; com- 
position of the ballads — Mystery plays ; cycles ; seeming irrev- 
erence ; comical scenes ; tenderness ; Moralities ; Everyman — 
Introduction of printing; effect on price of books; effect on 
England — Foreign discoveries — Progress of the people 52 

CHAPTER V 
Century XVI 

Shakespeare's century 

Literary position of Italy — The Renaissance — Increased know- 
ledge of the Western Continent — Teachings of Copernicus — 
Henry VIII and the Renaissance — John Skelton ; Phyllyp 
Sparrow ; influence of Skelton — Sir Thomas More; Utopia — 
religious questioning — Tyndale ; translation of the New Tes- 
tament — Separation of Church of England from Church of 
Rome — Death of More — Sir Thomas Wyatt — The Earl of 
Surrey ; the sonnet ; blank verse ; The JEneid — TotteVs Mis- 



CONTENTS 



vii 



cellany — Masques — Interludes ; The Foure P's ; John Hey- 
wood — The first English comedy — The first English tragedy ; 
difference between them in form — Increasing strength of Eng- 
land — Literary boldness — Early Elizabethan drama — Need of 
form — John Lyly ; Eitphues j advantages of euphuism — Pas- 
torals — Edmund Spenser ; Shepherd's Calendar j Spenser goes 
to Ireland — The pastoral fashion — Sir Philip Sidney ; Arcadia 

— The miscellanies — Later Elizabethan drama; songs in the 
dramas ; need of a standard verse — Christopher Marlowe ; Tam- 
burlaine j triumph of blank verse — Events from 1580 to 1 590 — 
The Faerie Queerie — Decade of the sonnet ; Astrophel and Stella 

— Richard Hooker ; Ecclesiastical Polity — William Shake- 
speare ; in Stratford ; in London ; his plays and poems before 
1600 68 



CHAPTER VI 
Century XVII 
PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 

Shakespeare's later plays ; sonnets ; his genius ; Shakespeare as a 
man — Sir Walter Raleigh ; his History of the World — Francis 
Bacon; Essays; public life; philosophy — King James version 
of the Bible — Ben Jonson : Every Man in His Htunonr ; the 
unities ; Shakespeare and Ben Jonson ; Jonson's excellence ; his 
masques ; Oberon ; The Sad Shepherd ; the Tribe of Ben — 
Beaumont and Fletcher — The First Folio — Closing of the thea- 
tres — Decadence of the drama ; causes thereof — Literature of 
the conflict — John Donne; conceits — John Milton; shorter 
poems ; pamphlets : marriage ; Milton as Latin secretary ; De- 
fence of the English People; sonnets — George Herbert; The 
Temple — Richard Crashaw; Steps to the Altar — Henry 
Vaughan ; Silex Scintillans ; love of nature — Thomas Fuller ; 
Holy and Profane State ; The Worthies of England — Jeremy 
Taylor ; Holy Living and Holy Dying — Richard Baxter ; The 
Saints' Everlasting Rest — " Cavalier Poets " — Thomas Carew 
— Sir John Suckling — Richard Lovelace — Robert Herrick ; 
Hesperides; Noble Numbers — I zaak Walton; The Compleat 
Angler — The Restoration — Samuel Butler; Hudibras — Mil- 
ton's later work ; Paradise Lost ; Paradise Regained; Samson 



viii CONTENTS 

Agonistes — John Bunyan ; persecution ; The Pilgrim's Progress 
— John Dryden ; the drama of the Restoration ; Dryden's plays ; 
his satire ; theological writings ; translations ; odes — Prose 
literature of the seventeenth century 103 



CHAPTER VII 
Century XVIII 

THE CENTURY OF PROSE 

Coffee drinking — Alexander Pope ; Essay on Criticism; The Rape 
of the Lock; translations ; life ; The Dunciad ; Essay on Man 

— Joseph Addison and Richard Steele ; The Tatter; The Spec- 
tator; Sir Roger de Coverley; Cato; Addison's hymns — Jona- 
than Swift ; The Tale of a Tub; The Battle of the Books; A Mod- 
est Proposal; Gulliver's Travels; Swift's character — Daniel De- 
foe ; The Shortest Way with Dissenters; result ; Essay on Pro- 
jects; Robinson Crtisoe; fournal of the Plague Year — The Age 
of Queen Anne — The novel — Samuel Richardson; Pamela — 
Henry Fielding; foseph Andrews — Clarissa Harlowe — Tom 
fones — Tobias Smollett ; Roderick Random — Laurence Sterne; 
Tristram Sha?idy ; The Sentimental fourney — Samuel John- 
son ; the Dictionary ; patronage ; The Rambler; Rasselas; John- 
son's pension; James Boswell ; Johnson's conversation; his 
Shakespeare; fourney to the Hebrides; Lives of the Poets — 
Oliver -Goldsmith ; earlier works ; The Vicar of Wakefield; The 
Traveller; The Good-Natured Man; The Deserted Village; She 
Stoops to Conquer — Edmund Burke ; On the Sublime and Beau- 
tiful; On Conciliation with America; On the French Revolution 

— William Robertson; his work — David Hume; History of 
England — Edward Gibbon ; Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire — New qualities in literature — Thomas Gray ; " Gray's 
Elegy " — Percy's Reliques — William Cowper ; his hymns ; fohn 
Gilpin; The Task — Robert Burns; early work and models; 
first volume ; visit to Edinburgh; disappointment ; songs ; Tarn 
O'Shanter; The Cotter's Saturday Night 1 53 



1 



CONTENTS 



ix 



CHAPTER VIII 

Century XIX 

THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 

The "Lake Poets" — William Wordsworth — S. T. Coleridge; 
Lyrical Ballads; Rime of the Ancient Mariner — Robert 
Southey; his works — Coleridge's poetry; its incompleteness — 
Wordsworth's life; slow appreciation of his poems — Walter 
Scott ; boyhood ; early literary work ; Minstrelsy of the Scottish 
Border ; Abbotsforcl ; failure of publishers ; the historical novel — 
Lord Byron ; Honrs of Idleness; English Bards and Scotch 
Reviewers; Childe Harold; Byron's later life and poems ; two 
subjects that interested him ; attempts to aid the Greeks — 
Percy Bysshe Shelley; best poems ; poetic qualities; death — 
John Keats ; Kndymion and its reviews ; later poems ; Ode to a 
Grecian Urn — Charles Lamb ; his friends ; poems ; play ; Tales 
from Shakespeare ; Spechnens of Dramatic Poets, etc. ; Essays 
of Elia ; freedom — Thomas De Quincey; first literary work; 
Confessions of an English Opiu?n-Eater ; dependence; two of 
his best known essays ; his style ; Edinburgh Review — Quarterly 
Review — Blackwood's Magazine — Jane Austen; her novels; 
their excellence — 1832 a natural boundary — Charles Dickens ; 
early struggles ; The Pickwick Papers ; later work ; qualities 
of his characters; method of caricature; hard work — W. M. 
Thackeray; slowness of general appreciation; Vanity Fair; 
Thackeray and Fielding ; lectures; burlesques; best novels — 
"George Eliot ;" character of her first work; first fiction; The 
Mill on the Floss; Silas Marner; character of her later books ; 
her work contrasted with Scott's; her seriousness of purpose — 
T. B. Macaulay; precocity; memory; first great essay; in poli- 
tics ; Lays of Ancient Rome ; History of England — Thomas 
Carlyle; his indecision; failures; marriage; Sartor Resartus ; 
History of the French Revolution ; Heroes and Hero-Worship ; 
Frederick the Great; final honors — John Ruskin ; Modern 
Painters; interest in workingmen ; industrial ideas; poetical 
titles ; style — Matthew Arnold ; The Forsaken Merman ; Greek 
restraint; prose criticism — Robert Browning; Miss Barrett and 
her poems; Browning's marriage; his dramas; Pippa Passes ; 



X 



CONTENTS 



Mrs. Browning's Aurora Leigh and Sonnets from the Portu- 
guese ; Browning's later volumes ; growth of his fame ; how to 
enjoy Browning — Alfred Tennyson ; early poems and their 
reception; recognition of his genius; The Princess ; In Memo- 
riam ; as Laureate; The Idylls of the King; Enoch Arden ; 
dramas — The Age of the Pen — Progress of literature — The 
novel of to-day 197 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 
CHAPTER I 

The Colonial Period 

1607-1765 

English Literature in the 17th Century — Early American histories 

— William Bradford — John Winthrop — The Bay Psalm Book 

— Michael Wigglesworth ; The Day of Doom — Anne Bradstreet; 
Several Poems — The A r ew England Primer — Cotton Mather; 
Magnalia Christi — Samuel Sewall — Jonathan Edwards; The 
Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will — Minor Writers : Roger 
Williams, John Eliot, Nathaniel Ward, William Bird, John 
Woolman — The Boston News Letter . 259 



CHAPTER II 

The Revolutionary Period 

1765-1815 

Benjamin Franklin; his versatility; his literary aims ; Poor Rich-- 
ard's Almanac; Autobiography — The Revolutionary Orators: 
James Otis; Richard Henry Lee; Patrick Henry — Political 
Writers : Thomas Paine ; Thomas Jefferson ; the Declaration 
of Independence ; George Washington — The Federalist : Alex- 
ander Hamilton ; John Jay; James Madison — "The Hartford 
Wits:" Timothy D wight ; Columbia; The Conquest of ' Canaan j 
John Trumbull ; M'Fingalj Joel Barlow ; The Columbiad ; Hasty 
Pudding — Philip Freneau ; Poems of 1786 — Charles Brockden 
Brown; Wieland ; Arthur Mervyn 273 



CONTENTS 



xi 



CHAPTER III 

The National Period — Earlier Years 

1815-1865 

THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 

National progress — The Knickerbocker School — Washington 
Irving; Salmagundi; Knickei'bocker's Histoiy of New York; 
The Sketch Book ; Bracebridge Hall ; Tales of a Traveller; Life 
of Colwnbus ; The Conquest of Granada ; The Companions of 
Columbus; The Alhambra j Life of Goldsmith : Life of Wash- 
ington — James Fenimore Cooper; Precaution ; The Spy j The 
Pilot; History of the United States Navy; Cooper and the courts ; 
Cooper's carelessness in writing ; Mark Twain's criticism — 
William Cullen Bryant; The Embargoj Thanatopsis ; To a 
Waterfowl; The Ages — Fitz-Greene Halleck — Joseph Rod- 
man Drake; The Croaker Papers; The Culprit Fay; The 
Americaii Flag ; Marco Bozzaris — Nathaniel Parker Willis ; 
Pencillings by the Way ; Sacred Poems 2S6 

CHAPTER IV 

The National Period — Earlier Years 

1815-1865 

THE TRANSCENDENTALISTS 



Transcendentalism; its influence upon literature — Ralph Waldo 
Emerson; enters the ministry; friendship with Carlyle; The 
American Scholar j literary style; how to enjoy Emerson; Em- 
erson's Poems — Henry David Thoreau; home at Walden 
Pond; A Week on the Concord and Merrifnack Rivers; Walden 
— Nathaniel Hawthorne; Brook Farm; Hawthorne's early life ; 
Twice-Told Tales; Mosses fro7n an Old Manse; The Scarlet 
Letter; The House of Seven Gables ; The Wonder Book ; Blithe- 
dale Romance; Life of Franklin Pierce; Tanglewood Tales ; 
The Marble Faun; Hawthorne compared with other writers of 
fiction ; Hawthorne's power 302 



xii 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER V 

The National Period — Earlier Years 

1815-1865 

THE ANTI— SLAVERY WRITERS 

The anti-slavery movement — John Greenleaf Whittier ; his first 
printed poem ; editorial work ; Snow-Bound; his ballads ; love 
of children — Harriet Beecher Stowe; Uncle Tom's Cabin; cause 
of its large sale ; The Minister's Wooing ; The Pearl of Orr's 
Island; Oldtown Folks — Orators : William Lloyd Garrison; Ed- 
ward Everett; Wendell Phillips; Charles Sumner; Rufus Choate; 
Daniel Webster 317 

CHAPTER VI 
The National Period — Earlier Years 

1815-1865 
THE CAMBRIDGE POETS 

Similarity in the lives of the Cambridge Poets — Henry Wadsworth 
Longfellow ; Hyperion; Voices of the Night; The Skeleton in 
Armor; translations; literary style ; Longfellow's sympathy — 
James Russell Lowell ; The Vision of Sir Launfal; A Fable 
for Critics; The Biglow Papers; scope of his work — Oliver 
Wendell Holmes; Old Ironsides; Poems; first contributor to 
the Atlantic ; The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table; Elsie Ven- 
ner ; occasional verse ; Holmes's charm 327 

CHAPTER VII a 

The National Period — Earlier Years 

1815-1865 
THE HISTORIANS 

Historical Writing — Jared Sparks — George Bancroft; History 
of the United States; founding of the Naval Academy — William 
Hickling Prescott ; The History of the Reign of Ferdinand and 



CONTENTS 



xin 



Isabella; The Conquest of Mexico ; The Conquest of Peru ; The 
History of the Reign of Philip the Second — John Lothrop Mot- 
ley ; The Rise of the Dutch Republic j The United Netherlands j 
The Life and Death of 'John of Barneveld —Francis Parkman; 
The Oregon Trail; literary style ; his plan completed — Hig- 
ginson's summary of these historians — Minor writers : John 
Gorham Palfrey ; Jeremy Belknap ; Richard Hildreth ; Edwin 
Percy Whipple; Richard Henry Dana; Donald Grant Mitchell; 
George William Curtis — Webster's Dictionary and Spelling 
Book — conscientious tone of New England literature . 340 

CHAPTER VIII 

The National Period — Earlier Years 

1815-1865 
THE SOUTHERN WRITERS 

Why there was little writing in the South — Henry Clay — Patrick 
Henry — Robert Young Hayne — John Caldwell Calhoun — 
William Wirt — William Gilmore Simms ; The Yemassee — 
Paul Hamilton Hayne — Henry Timrod — Edgar Allan Poe ; his 
critical powers; the Tales j The Fall of the House of Usher; 
Poe's poetry — Sidney Lanier; prose; poetry . . .351 

CHAPTER IX 

The National Period — Later Years 

1865— 

Present literary activity — Fiction : William Dean Howells ; Henry 
James ; Marion Crawford ; Edward Everett Hale ; Frank Stock- 
ton ; George W. Cable ; Richard Johnston ; John Esten Cooke ; 
Thomas Nelson Page ; Joel Chandler Harris ; Mary N. Murfree; 
James Lane Allen ; Edward Eggleston ; J. T. Trowbridge ; Mary 
Wilkins Freeman; Sarah Orne Jewett; Alice Brown; Elizabeth 
Stuart Phelps Ward ; Rose Terry Cooke ; Kate Douglas Wiggin 
Riggs ; Helen Hunt Jackson; Mary Hallock Foote ; Frances 
Hodgson Burnett — The Short Story — Poetry: Bayard Taylor; 
Views Afoot ; Poems of the Orient ; Bedouin Song ; Home Pas- 
torals / Faust — Richard Henry Stoddard — Edmund Clarence 



xiv CONTENTS 

Stedman — Thomas Bailey Aldrich ; Baby Bell ; Marjorie Daw 
— Francis Bret Harte ; Condensed Novels j The Luck of Roaring 
Camp — Walt Whitman ; O Captain ! My Captain! j Leaves of 
Grass — Minor poets : Celia Thaxter ; Lucy Larcom ; John Hay ; 
Jones Very; Edward Rowland Sill; Richard Watson Gilder — 
Humorous writings: Charles Dudley Warner; Charles Farrar 
Browne; Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber; David Ross Locke; 
Henry Wheeler Shaw ; Samuel Langhorne Clemens ; Innocents 
Abroad j The Personal Memoirs of foan of Arc ; The Prince 
and the Pauper — History and Biography : John Fiske; Henry 
Adams ; James Schouler ; Thomas Wentworth Higginson ; Jus- 
tin Winsor ; John Bach McMaster; Hubert H. Bancroft ; James 
Parton ; Horace E. Scudder — John Burroughs — The magazine 
article : Agnes Repplier ; Samuel M. Crothers — American 
scholars: Charles Eliot Norton; Francis James Child; Francis 
Andrew March; Felix Emanuel Schelling; Cornelius Felton ; 
Howard Horace Furness — Juvenile literature: Jacob Abbott; 
Louisa M. Alcott ; Frances Hodgson Burnett — Young people's 
magazines — Literary progress of America in 300 years . 364 

REFERENCES 

England's Literature 388 

America's Literature 396 



INDEX 



401 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Geoffrey Chaucer. From the National Portrait Gallery. 

Painter unknown Frontispiece 

Portion of the First Page of Beowulf. Folio i29r of 

MS. Cott. Vitellius A. XV in the British Museum .... 5 
The Ruins of Whitby Abbey. From a photograph . . 9 
Monk at Work on the Book of Kildare. From a MS. 

in the British Museum 13 

Medleval Author at Work. From a MS. in the library 
at Soissons in Cutts's Scenes and Characters of the Middle 

Ages 15 

King Alfred. From an engraving by Vertue in Annates 

rerum gestarum A If redi Magni by Asserius Menevensis . 17 
Dedication of a Saxon Church. From a MS. in the li- 
brary at Rouen used in Knight's Popular History of England 20 
Sir Launcelot and a Hermit. From an illuminated MS. 

of 1316 copied in Cutts's Middle Ages 29 

A Band of Minstrels. From a fourteenth century MS. in 

Cutts's Middle Ages 33 

Sir John Mandeville on his Voyage to Palestine. 
From a MS. in the British Museum copied in Cutts's Mid- 
dle Ages 38 

John Wyclif. From the South Kensington National Por- 
traits 41 

The Prioress. From the Ellesmere MS 45 

The Wife of Bath. From the Harleian MS 46 

The Squire. From the Ellesmere MS 47 

The Parson. " " " " 48 

Chaucer. " " " " 49 

A Mystery Play at Coventry. From an old print . . 58 
A Scene from "Everyman." From a photograph of the 

reproduction given by the Ben Greet Company 61 

Caxton presented to Edward IV. From Strutt's Ec- 
clesiastical a?id Regal Antiquities 63 



xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Earliest known Representation of a Printing-Press. 

From Blade's William Caxton 65 

Sir Thomas More. From Holbein's Court of Henry VIII 72 
A Masquer. From John Nichol's Progress of fa?nes I . . 76 
Edmund Spenser. From South Kensington National Por-_ 

traits 85 

Sir Philip Sidney 87 

The Red Cross Knight. From the third edition of the 

Faerie Queene, 1 598 93 

Shakespeare's Birthplace at Stratford. From a pho- 
tograph 97 

William Shakespeare. From the Chandos Portrait . . 99 
Ben Jonson. From a painting by Gerard Honthorst . . .111 
John Milton. From a crayon drawing at Bayfordbury . .119 
Printing Office of 161 9. From the title-page of a book 

printed by William Jones in 161 9 123 

George Herbert 125 

John Bunyan. After a drawing from life in the British 

Museum 143 

John Dryden 147 

Alexander Pope. From a portrait by Richardson . . .154 

Joseph Addison 159 

Jonathan Swift 165 

Daniel Defoe 169 

Samuel Richardson 172 

Samuel Johnson. After Sir Joshua Reynolds 175 

Oliver Goldsmith 181 

Robert Burns. From the painting by Alexander Nasmyth 

in the National Portrait Gallery 191 

William Wordsworth. From an engraving by F. T. 

Stuart 197 

Samuel Taylor Coleridge 201 

Sir Walter Scott in 1820. From the Chantry Bust . . 204 

John Keats 212 

Charles Lamb . • 215 

Thomas De Quincey 219 

Charles Dickens. After a crayon drawing by Sol Eytinge, 

Jr. 224 

William Makepeace Thackeray 227 

Lord Macaulay 231 

Robert Browning . 240 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



xvii 



Lord Tennyson 243 

Cardinal Newman at 44 249 

Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey. From a photograph 251 

The Chief American Poets 257 

The Title-Page of Anne Bradstreet's Book of Poems 263 
The Alphabet in the New England Primer .... 265 

Jonathan Edwards 269 

Benjamin Franklin 274 

Patrick Henry making his Tarquin and Cesar Speech 277 

The Authors of the Federalist . 279 

Washington Irving 287 

Sunnyside 291 

James Fenimore Cooper ..... 292 

Three Transcendentalists 303 

Henry David Thoreau 307 

Thoreau's House at Walden . 310 

Nathaniel Hawthorne 311 

The Kitchen of Snowbound 320 

A Group of American Orators . 323 

Cambridge in 1824 . 327 

Craigie House 330 

Elmwood 332 

The Autocrat leaving his Boston Home for a Morn- 
ing Walk 336 

John Lothrop Motley 344 

Francis Parkman 346 

William Wirt • 351 

William Gilmore Simms 353 

A Group of American Women Writers 367 

The Portrait of Helen Hunt Jackson is reproiuced by the courtesy of Little, 
Brown and Company. 

John Burroughs 381 

MAP 

Places mentioned in English Literary History (indexed 
double-page colored map) Facing 1 



SIGNIFICANT DATES IN ENGLISH LITER- 
ATURE 



680. Death of Caedmon. 
735. Death of Bede. 
901. Death of Alfred. 
1066. Norman Conquest. 

1 1 54. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ends ; death of Geoffrey of 
Monmouth. 

1205-25. Layamon's Brut, the Ormulum, the Ancren Riwle. 
1346. Battle of Crdcy. 

1362. Piers Plowman. English becomes the official lan- 
guage of the courts. 
1380. Wyclif's translation of the Bible. 
1400. Death of Chaucer. 

1453. Capture of Constantinople by the Turks. 
1470. Malory's Morte d Arthur. 
T476. Printing introduced into England. 
1525. Tyndale's translation of the New Testament. 
Before 1 547. Blank verse introduced by Surrey, the Sonnet and 

Italian attention to form introduced by Surrey and 

Wyatt. 

1552 or 53 (?). Ralph Roister Doister, the first English comedy. 
1564. Birth of Shakespeare. 
1579. Euphues; The Shepherd's Calendar. 
1587-93. Marlowe shows the power of blank verse. 
1590. Arcadia; Books i-m of the Faerie Queene. 
1590-1600. Decade of the Sonnet. 

1594. Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Books i-iv. 
161 1. " King James version " of the Bible. 
161 6. Death of Shakespeare. 
1623. First Folio. 
1632-38. Milton's L Allegro, II Penseroso, Comus, and Ly- 
cidas. 

1642. Closing of the theatres. 
1660. The Restoration. 
1662. Hudibras. 



SIGNIFICANT DATES 



xix 



1667. Paradise Lost. 

1678. The Pilgrim's Progress. 

1700. Death of Dryden. 

1 709-1 1. The Tatler. 

1711-13. The Spectator. 

1740. Pamela, the first English novel. 

1751. Gray's Elegy. 

1765. Percy's Reliques. 

1798. Lyrical Ballads, by Wordsworth and Coleridge. 

1802-17. Reviews established. 

181 1. Jane Austen's Sense and Sensibility. 

18 1 2. First part of Byron's Childe Harold. 
1814. Scott's Waverley. 

1819-21. Best work of Keats and Shelley. 

1830. Tennyson's Poems, Chiefly Lyrical. 

1836-37. Dickens's Pickwick Papers. 

1843. First volume of Ruskin's Modern Painters. 

1848. First volume of Macaulay's History of England. 

1857. "' George Eliot's " first fiction. 

1868-69. Browning's The Ring and the Book. 



SIGNIFICANT DATES IN AMERICAN LITER- 
ATURE 

1640. The Bay Psalm Book, the first book printed in 
America. 

1650. Anne Bradstreet's poems, the best American verse 
of the seventeenth century. 

1 704. The Boston News Letter, the first Ameri can newspaper. 

1754. Edwards's Lnquiry into the Freedom of the Will, the 
first great American metaphysical book. 

1786. Freneau's poems, the best American poetry of the 
eighteenth century. 

1 798. Brown's Wieland, the first American romance. 

181 7. Bryant's Thanatopsis, the first great American poem. 

1819. Irving's Sketch Book, the first American book to win 
European fame. 

1821. Cooper's Spy, the first important American novel. 

1837. Emerson's American Scholar, "our intellectual Dec- 
laration of Independence." 



A SHORT HISTORY 
OF ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



CHAPTER I 

CENTURIES V-XI 

EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 
i. Poetry 

1. Our English ancestors. About fifteen hundred 
years ago, our English ancestors were living in Jutland 
and the northern part of what is now Germany. They 
were known as Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, all different 
tribes of Teutons. They were bold and daring, and de- 
lighted in dashing through the waves wherever the tem- 
pest might carry them, burning and plundering on what- 
ever coast they landed. If a man died fighting bravely 
in battle, they believed that the Valkyries bore him to 
the Valhalla of Odin and Thor, where the joys of fight- 
ing and feasting would never end. Yet these savage 
warriors loved music ; they were devoted to their homes 
and their families ; and, independent as they were, they 
would yield to any one whom they believed to be their 
rightful ruler. They were honest in their religion, and 
they thought seriously about the puzzling questions of 
life and death. They were sturdy in body and mind, 
the best of material to found a nation. About the mid- 
dle of the fifth century, they began to go in large num- 
bers to Britain, and there they remained, either slaying 



2 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [>th-5th Cent. 



or driving to the west and north the Celts who had pre- 
viously occupied the country. The Angles were one of 
the strongest Teutonic tribes, and gradually the island 
became known as the land of the Angles, then Angle- 
land, then England. 

However rough the Teutons might be, there was one 
person whom they never forgot to treat with special 
honor, and that was the ."scop," the maker, 

escop. ^ former. It was his noble office to chant 
the achievements of heroes at the feasts of which the 
Teutons were so fond. Imagine a rude hall with a 
raised platform at one end. A line of stone hearths with 
blazing fires runs down the room from door to door. 
Between the hearths and the side walls are places for 
the sleeping-benches of the warriors. In the fires great 
joints of meat are roasting, and on either side of the 
hearths are long, rude tables. On the walls are shields 
and breastplates and helmets, and coats of mail made 
of rings curiously fastened together. Here and there 
are clusters of spears standing against the wall. The 
burnished mail flashes back the blazing of the fires, and 
trembles with the heavy tread of the thegns, with their 
merriment and their laughter, for the battle or the 
voyage is over, and the time of feasting has come. On 
the platform is the table of the chief, and with him sit 
the women of his family, and any warriors to whom he 
wishes to show special honor. After the feasting and 
the drinking of mighty cups of "mead," gifts are pre- 
sented to those who have been bravest, sometimes by 
the chief, and sometimes — an even greater honor — by 
the wife of the chief herself. These gifts are horses, 
jewelled chains for the neck or golden bracelets for the 
arms, brightly polished swords, and coats of mail and 
helmets. The scop sits on the platform by the side 



5th-6th Cent] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



3 



of the chief. When the feasting is ended, he strikes 
a heavy chord on his harp and begins his song with 
" Hwset ! " that is, " Lo ! " or " Listen ! " 

2. Growth of the epic. — Beowulf. These songs 
chanted by the scops were composed many years before 
they were written, and probably no two singers ever 
sang them exactly alike. One scop would sing some 
exploit of a hero ; another would sing it differently, and 
perhaps add a second exploit greater than the first. 
Little by little the poem grew longer. Little by little it 
became more united. The heroic deeds grew more and 
more marvellous, they became achievements that affected 
the welfare of a whole people ; the poem had a hero, a 
beginning, and an end. The simple tale of a single ad- 
venture had become an epic. After a while it was writ- 
ten ; and the manuscript of one of these epics has come 
down to us, though after passing through the perils of 
fire, and is now in the British Museum. It 

Beowulf. 

is called Beowulf because it is the story of the 
exploits of a hero by that name. The scene is appar- 
ently laid in Denmark and southern Sweden, and it is 
probable that bits of the poem were chanted at feasts 
long before the Teutons set sail for the shores of Eng- 
land. The story of the poem is as follows : — 

Hrothgar, king of the Danes, built a more beautiful hall 
than men had ever heard of before. There he and his 
thegns enjoyed music and feasting, and divided the treasures 
that they had won in many a hard-fought battle. They were 
very happy together ; but down in the marshes by the ocean 
was a monster named Grendel, who envied them and hated 
them. One night, when the thegns were sleeping, he came 
up stealthily through the mists and the darkness and dragged 
away thirty of the men and devoured them. 

Night after night the slaughter went on, for Hrothgar was 



4 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [5th-6th Cent. 

feeble with age and none of his thegns were strong enough 
to take vengeance. At length the young hero, Beowulf, heard 
of the monster, and offered to attack it. When night came, 
Grendel stalked up through the darkness, seized a warrior, 
and devoured him. He grasped another, but that other was 
Beowulf ; and then came a struggle, for the monster felt such 
a clutch as he had never known. No sword could harm 
Grendel. Whoever overcame him must win by the strength 
of his own right arm. Benches were torn from their places, 
and the very hall trembled with the contest. At last Grendel 
tore himself away and fled to the marshes, but he left his 
arm in the unyielding grasp of the hero. 

Then was there great rejoicing with Hrothgar and his 
thegns. A lordly feast was given to the champion ; horses 
and jewels and armor and weapons were presented to him, 
while scops sang of his glory. The joy was soon turned 
into sorrow, however, for on the following night, another 
monster, as horrible as the first, came into the hall. It was 
the mother of Grendel come to avenge her son, and she 
carried away one of Hrothgar's favorite liegemen. 

When Beowulf was told of this, he set out to punish the 
murderer. He followed the footprints of the fiend through 
the wood-paths, over the swamps, the cliffs, and the fens ; and 
at. last he came to a precipice overhanging water that was 
swarming with dragons and sea serpents. Deep down among 
them was the den of Grendel and his mother. Beowulf put 
on his best armor and dived down among the horrible crea- 
tures, while his men kept an almost hopeless watch on the 
cliff above him. All day long he sank, down, down, until he 
came to the bottom of the sea. There was Grendel's mother, 
and she dragged him into her den. Then there was another 
terrible struggle, and as the blood burst up through the 
water, the companions of Beowulf were sad indeed, for they 
felt sure that they should never again see the face of their 
beloved leader. While they were gazing sorrowfully at the 
water, the hero appeared, bearing through the waves the 



5th-6th Cent] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 5 

head of Grendel. He had killed the mother and cut off the 
head from Grendel's body, which lay in the cavern. 

Beowulf's third exploit took place many years later, after 
he had ruled his people for fifty years. He heard of a vast 
treasure of gold and jewels hidden away in the earth, and 
although it was guarded by a fire-breathing dragon, he deter- 
mined to win it for his followers. There was a fearful 
encounter, and his thegns, all save one, proved to be cowards 
and deserted him. He won the victory, but the dragon had 
wounded him, and the poison of the wound soon ended his 
life. Then the thegns built up a pyre, hung with helmets 
and coats of mail ; and on it they burned the body of their 
dead leader. After this, they raised a mighty mound in his 
honor, and placed in it a store of rings and of jewels. 
Slowly the greatest among them rode around it, mourning for 
their leader and speaking words of love and praise, — 

Said he was mightiest of all the great world-kings, 

Mildest of rulers, most gentle in manner, 

Most kind to his liegemen, most eager for honor. 

This is the story of Beowulf as it has come down to us 
in a single ragged and smoke-stained manuscript. This 



fPy/ET PE £ ARCX 

A ^J/va. m^eap, Icvyum* ^eo6 cynw^A 
j^iemeion. opo fey lb fcepn^ feeder) 

A PORTION OF THE FIRST PAGE OF THE BEOWULF MANUSCRIPT 

manuscript was probably written in the eighth or ninth 
century, and the poem must differ greatly from the 
original version, especially in its religious allusions. In 
earlier times, the Celts had learned the Christian faith 



6 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [ 5 th-6th Cent. 



from the Irish ; but it was not preached to the Teutons 
Effect of in southern England until 597, when mission- 
Sy^nthe ar * es ^ rom R° me made their way to Kent. At 
poem. first they were allowed to preach on the little 
island of Thanet only and in the open air ; for the wary 
Teutons had no idea of hearing strange teachings under 
roofs where magic might easily overpower them. Soon, 
however, large numbers became earnest converts. Bits 
of the teachings of the missionaries were dropped into 
Beowulf. Instead of "Fate," the poets said "God;" 
Grendel is declared to be a descendant of Cain; and the 
scop interrupts his story of Grendel's envious hatred by 
singing of the days when God made the heavens and 
the earth ; the ceremonies at the burning of Beowulf 
are heathen, but the poem says that it was God, the 
true King of Victory, who led him to the fire-dragon's 
treasures. 

3. Form of early English poetry. Many words in 
Old English are like words in present use, but Old Eng- 
lish poetry was different in several respects from the 
poetry of to-day. The following lines from Beowulf are 
a good illustration : — 

Tha com of more under mist-hleothum 

Then came from the moor under the misty-hillside 

Grendel gongan, Godes yrre baer ; 

Grendel going, God's wrath he bore ; 

mynte se man-scatha manna cynnes 

intended the deadly foe of men to the race 

sumne besyrwan in sele tham hean. 

some one to ensnare in hall that lofty. 

To-day we like to hear rhyme at the end of our lines ; 
our ancestors enjoyed not rhyme, but alliteration. In 
every line there were four accented syllables. The third, 



5th-6th Cent.] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



7 



the "rime-giver," gave the keynote, for with whatever 
letter that began, one of the preceding accented syllables 
must begin and both might begin. The fourth never 
alliterated with the other three. In the first line quoted, 
the accented syllables are com, mor, mist, and hie. Mist 
is the rime-giver. In the second line, God is the rime- 
giver, while Gren, gon, and beer are the other accented 
syllables. The Teutons were very fond of compound 
words. Some of these words are simple and childlike, 
such as ban-hus (bone-house), body ; ban-loca (bone- 
locker), flesh. Some, especially those pertaining to the 
ocean, are poetical, such as mere-straet (sea-street), way 
over the sea ; yth-lida (wave-sailer) and famig-heals 
(foamy-necked), vessel. 

4. Other Old English poems. A number of shorter 
poems have come down to us from the Old English. 
Among them are two that are of special in- 
terest. One of these is Widsith (the far- 
wanderer), and this is probably our earliest English 
poem. It pictures the life of the scop, who roams about 
from one great chief to another, everywhere made wel- 
come, everywhere rewarded for his song by kindness 
and presents. The poem ends : — 

Wandering thus, there roam over many a country 
The gleemen of heroes, mindful of songs for the chanting, 
Telling their needs, their heartfelt thankfulness speaking. 
Southward or northward, wherever they go, there is some one 
Who values their song and is liberal to them in his presents, 
One who before his retainers would gladly exalt 
His achievements, would show forth his honors. Till all this is 
vanished, 

Till life and light disappear, who of praise is deserving 
Has ever throughout the wide earth a glory unchanging. 

The second of these songs is Deor s Lament. Deor is 



8 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [5th-6th Cent. 

in sorrow, for another scop has become his lord's favor- 
Deor , s ite. The neglected singer comforts himself 
Lament. by recalling the troubles that others have met. 
Each stanza ends with the refrain, — 

That he endured ; this, too, can I. 

Widsith and Deors Lament were found in a manu- 
script volume of poems collected and copied more than 
The Exeter eight hundred years ago. It is known as the 
Book. Exeter Book because it belongs to the cathe- 
dral at Exeter. Another volume, containing both poe- 
Thever- trv an< ^ P rose > was discovered at the Monastery 
ceiiiBook. f Vercelli in Italy. These two volumes and 
the manuscript of Beowulf contain almost all that is left 
to us of Anglo-Saxon poetry. 

5. Caedmon [d. 680]. The happy scop and the un- 
happy scop are both forgotten. No one knows who 
wrote either the rejoicing or the lament. The first 
English poet that we know by name is the monk Caed- 
mon, who died in 68o. The introduction of Christianity 
made great changes in the country, for though the sturdy 
Effect of Englishmen could not lay aside in one century, 
Christian- or two, or three, all their confidence in charms 
and magic verses, and in runic letters cut into 
the posts of their doors and engraved on their swords 
and their battle-axes, yet they were honest believers in 
the God of whom they had learned. Churches and con- 
vents rose throughout the land, and one of these convents 
was the home of Caedmon. It was founded by Irish mis- 
sionaries, and was built at what is now called Whitby, on 
a lofty cliff overlooking the German Ocean. There men 
and women prayed and worked and sought to live lives of 
holiness. At one of their feasts the harp passed from 
one to another, that each might sing in turn. Caedmon 



7th Cent] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



9 



had not been educated as a monk, and therefore he had 
never learned to make songs. As the harp came near 
him, he was glad to slip out of the room with the excuse 
that he must care for the cattle. In the stable csdmon's 
he fell asleep ; and as he slept a vision appeared vision, 
to him and said, " Caedmon, sing some song to me." 
" I cannot sing," he replied, " and that is why I left the 
feasting." "But you shall sing," declared the vision. 




THE RUINS OF WHITBY ABBEY 



"Sing the beginning of created beings." Then Caed- 
mon sang. He sang of the power of the Creator, of his 
glory, and of how He made the heavens and the earth. 
In the morning he told the steward of the mysterious 
gift that had .come to him while he slept, and the stew- 
ard led him joyfully to Hilda, the royal maiden who was 
their abbess. Many learned men came together, and 
Caedmon told them his dream and repeated his verses. 
Another subject was given him, and he made verses on 
that also. "It is the grace of God," said the council rev- 



IO ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [8th Cent 

erently. The habit of a monk was put upon him, he was 
carefully taught the word of God, and as he learned, he 
composed poem after poem, following the Bible story 
from the creation to the coming of Christ, his resurrec- 
tion and his ascension. 

6. Cynewulf, born about 750. The name of one 
more poet, Cynewulf, is that of the greatest of the au- 
thors whose words have come down to us from the early 
days of England. He, too, was probably of Northum- 
bria, and he must have written about a^ century after the 
time of Csedmon. Hardly anything is known of him 
except his name ; but he interwove that in some of his 
poems in such a way that it could never be forgotten. 

For this purpose he made use of runes, the 
earliest of the northern alphabets. Each rune 
represented not only a letter, but also the word of which 
it was the initial ; for instance : — 

C = Cene, the courageful warrior. 

Y =Yfel, wretched. 

N = Nyd, necessity. 

W= Wyn, joy. 

U — Ur, our. 

L = Lagu, water. 

F =Feoh,- wealth. 

With these runes Cynewulf spelled out his name : — 

Then the Courage-hearted cowers when the King he hears 
Speak the words of wrath — Him the wielder of the heavens 
Speak to those who once on earth but obeyed him weakly, 
While as yet their yearning pain, and their Need, most easily 
Comfort might discover. 

Gone is then the J^insomeness 
Of the earth's adornments ! What to Us as men belonged 
Of the joys of life was locked, long ago in Zake-floods, 
All the Fee on earth. 1 

1 Stopford Brooke's translation, in English Literature from the 
Beginning to the Norman Conquest. 



8th Cent.] 



EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



Cynewulf has many beautiful descriptions of nature, 
sometimes of nature calm and quiet and peaceful ; for 
instance : — 

When the winds are lulled and the weather is fair, 
When the sun shines bright, holy jewel of heaven, 
When the clouds are scattered, the waters subdued, 
When no stormwind is heard, and the candle of nature 
Shines warm from the south, giving light to the many. 

Cynewulf loved tranquil days and peaceful scenes ; but 
if he wrote the riddles which are often thought to be 
his, he had not lost sympathy with the wild life of his 
ancestors on the stormy ocean. The English l&ed rid- 
dles, and this one must have been repeated over and 
over again at convent feasts and in halls at times of 
rejoicing : — 

Sometimes I come down from above and stir up the storm-waves ; 

The surges, gray as the flint-stone, I hurl on the sea-banks, 

The foaming waters I dash on the rock-wall. Gloomily 

Moves from the deep a mountain billow ; darkening, 

Onward it sweeps o'er the turbulent wild of the ocean. 

Another comes forth and, commingling, they meet at the mainland 

In high, towering ridges. Loud is the call from the vessel, 

Loud is the sailors' appeal ; but the rock-masses lofty 

Stand unmoved by the seafarers' cries or the waters. 

The answer to this is " The hurricane." 

An especially beautiful poem of Cynewulf's is called 
the Dream of the Rood. The cross appeared to the poet 
in a dream, — "the choicest dream," he calls it. The Dream 
It was "circled with light," it was glittering oftlieRood - 
with gems and with gold, and around it stood the angels 
of God. From it there flowed forth a stream of blood ; 
and while the dreamer gazed in wonder, the cross spoke 
to him. It told him of the tree being cut from the edge 
of the forest and made into the cross. Then followed 
the story of the crucifixion, of the three crosses that 



12 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE |>th-8th Cent. 



stood long on Calvary sorrowing, of the burial of the 
cross of Christ deep down in the earth, of its being 
found by servants of God, who adorned it with silver 
and with gold that it might bring healing to all who 
should pay it their reverence. 

7. Early English poetry as a whole. Such was the 
Early English poetry, beginning with wild exploits of 
half-fabulous heroes and gradually changing under the 
touch of Christianity into paraphrases of the Bible story, 
into legends of saints, and accounts of heavenly vi- 
sions. It contains bold descriptions of sea and tempest, 
intermingling, as the years passed, with pictures of 
more quiet and peaceful scenes. The names of but two 
poets, Caedmon and Cynewulf, are known to us ; but 
throughout all these early poems there is an earnest- 
ness, an appealing sincerity, and an honest, childlike 
love of nature, that bring the writers very near to us, 
and make them no unworthy predecessors of the poets 
that have followed them. 

2. Prose 

8. Bede, 673-735. About the time of the death of 
Caedmon, a boy was born in Northumbria who was to 
write one of the most famous pieces of Early English 
prose. His name was Bede, or Baeda, and he is often 
called the Venerable Bede, venerable being the title 
next below that of saint. When he was a little child, 
he was taken to the convent of Jarrow, and there he 
remained all his life. A busy life it was. The many 
His educa- nours °f prayer must be observed ; the land 
tion. must be' cultivated; guests must be enter- 
tained, no small interruption as the fame of the convent 
and of Bede himself increased. Moreover, this convent 
was a great school, to which some six hundred pupils, 



8th Cent.] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



13 



not only from England but from various parts of Europe, 
came for instruction. 

Bede enjoyed it all. He was happy in his religious 
duties. He " always took delight," as he says, ''in 
learning, teaching, and writing." He found real plea- 
sure in the outdoor work; 
and, little as he tells us of his 
own life, he does not forget 
to say that he especially liked 
winnowing and threshing the 
grain and giving milk to the 
young lambs and calves. He 
was keenly alive to the affairs 
of the world, and though li- 
braries were his special de- 
light, he was as ready to talk 
with his stranger guests of 
distant kingdoms as of books. 
In the different monasteries 
of England there were collec- 
tions of valuable manuscripts, and Jarrow had one of 
the most famous of these collections. The abbot loved 
books, and from each one of his numerous journeys to 
Rome he returned with a rich store of volumes. 

Much of Bede's time must have been given to teach- 
ing, and yet, in the midst of all his varied occupations, 
this first English scholar found leisure to Bede . s 
write an enormous amount. Forty-five different writings, 
works he produced, and they were really a summary of 
the knowledge of his day. He wrote of grammar, rhet- 
oric, music, medicine ; he wrote lives of saints and com- 
mentaries on the Bible, — indeed, there is hardly a 
subject that he did not touch. He even wrote a vol- 
ume of poems, including a dainty little pastoral, resem- 




MONK AT WORK ON BOOK OF 
KILDARE 



14 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



[8th Cent. 



bling the Latin pastorals, a contest of song between 
summer and winter, which closes with a pretty picture 
of the coming of springtime and the cuckoo. "When 
the cuckoo comes," he says, "the hills are covered with 
happy blossoms, the flocks find pasture, the meadows 
are full of repose, the spreading branches of the trees 
give shade to the weary, and the many-colored birds 
sing their joyful greeting to the sunshine." 

One day the king of Northumbria asked Bede to write 
a history of England, and the busy monk began the 
work as simply as if he were about to prepare a lesson 
for his pupils. He sent to Rome for copies of letters 
and reports written in the early days when the Romans 
ruled the land ; he borrowed from various convents their 
treasures of old manuscripts pertaining to the early 
times ; and he talked with men who had preserved the 
Bede'sEc- anc i ent traditions and legends. So it was that 
ciesiasticai Bede's Ecclesiastical History, the first history 
History. Q £ £ n gi anc j j was wr itten. When it was done, 

he sent it to the king, together with a sincere and dig- 
nified little preface, in which he asked for the prayers 
of whoever should read the book, — a much larger num- 
ber than the quiet monk expected. 

With the difficulty of collecting information, no one 
could expect Bede's work to be free from mistakes, al- 
though he was careful from whom his information came, 
and he often gives the name of his authority. Bede 
knew well how to tell a story, and the Ecclesiastical 
History, sober and grave as its title sounds, is full of 
tales of visions of angels, lights from heaven, myste- 
rious voices, and tempests that were stilled and fires that 
were quenched at the prayers of holy men. Here is 
the legend of Caedmon and his gift of song. Here, too, 
is the famous statement that there are no snakes in Ire- 



8th Cent.] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 15 

land. "Even if they are carried thither from Britain," 
says Bede, "as soon as the ship comes near the shore 
and the scent of the air reaches them, they die." 

All these books were written in Latin. That was the 
tongue of the church and of all scholars of the day. It 
was a universal language, and an educated man might 
be set down in any monastery in England or on the 
Continent, and feel perfectly at home in its book-room 
or in conversation with the monks. Bede was so thor- 
oughly English, however, in his love of nature, his 
frankness and earnestness, and his devotion to the peo- 
ple of his own land that, although he wrote in Latin, 
most of his works have a purely English atmosphere. 

He did not scorn his native tongue, and even in _ . , 

. Bede's 
his writing he may have used it more than once, English 

though we know the name of one work only. writings - 
This was a translation of the Gospel of St. John, and 
it was his last work. He 
knew that his life was near 
its close, but he felt that he 
must complete this trans- 
lation for his pupils. Some 
one of them was always 
with him to write as the 
teacher might feel able to 
dictate. The last day of 
his life came, and in the 
morning the pupil said, 
" Master, there is still one 
chapter wanting. Will it 
trouble you to be asked 
any more questions ? " 
" It is no trouble," answered Bede. " Take your pen 
and write quickly." When evening had come, the boy 




l6 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [Sth-pth Cent. 

said gently, " Dear Master, there is yet one sentence 
not written." "Write quickly," said Bede again. "The 
sentence is written," said the boy a few minutes later. 
"It is well," murmured Bede, and with new strength 
he joyfully chanted the Gloria; and so, in 735, he 
passed away, the first English scholar, scientist, and 
historian. 

9. Alcuin, 7359-804. In the very year of Bede's 
death, if we may trust to tradition, Alcuin was born, the 
man who was to carry on English scholarship, though not 
on English soil. He was a monk of the convent of York, 
and was famous for his knowledge. Perhaps some of 
the English churchmen thought that he was too famous, 
when they knew that King Charlemagne had heard of 
his learning, and had persuaded him to leave his own 
country and come to France to teach the royal children 
and take charge of education in the Frankish kingdom. 
For fourteen years, from 782 to 796, he spent nearly all 

, his time at the court of Charlemagne. Moreover, he 
persuaded many other men of York training to leave 
England and assist him in teaching the French. He 
little knew how grateful the English would be in later 
years that this had been done. 

10. Alfred the Great, 848-901. During those years 
of Alcuin's absence in France, there was dire trouble in 
Danish Northumbria. King after king was slain by 
invasions, rebels ; and finally the Danes, coming from the 
shores of the Baltic, made their first attacks on the 
coasts of Northumbria. This was the beginning. Year 
after year the savage pirates fell upon the land. For 
more than three quarters of a century the Northum- 
brians were either fighting or dreading the coming of 
their heathen foes. At the end of that time, when 
peace was made with the terrible invaders, Northumbria 



9th Cent.] 



EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



17 



was a desert so far as literature was concerned. The 
Danes had struck especially at the monasteries because 
of the gold and silver vessels and ornaments that were 
collected in them ; and not one monastery remained 
standing in all the 
land from the Tyne 
to the Humber. Li- 
braries famous over 
Europe had been 
burned ; smoked 
and bloodstained 
ruins were alone 
left to show where 
men had been 
taught who had be- | 
come the teachers 
of Europe. South 
of the Humber mat- 
ters were little bet- 
ter ; for there, too, 
the heathen Danes 
had swept through 

and through the country. Priests pronounced the words 
in their Latin mass books, but very few could under- 
stand the language and put a Latin letter into English. 
The only hope of England lay in her king. It was 
happy for her that her king was Alfred the Great, and 
that this sovereign who could fight battles of swords 
and spears was of equal courage and wisdom in AUred > s 
the warfare against ignorance. In his child- character, 
hood he had visited Rome, perhaps spent several years 
in that city. He had paid a long visit at the Frankish 
court of Charlemagne's son. He had seen what know- 
ledge could do, and he meant that his own people should 




KING ALFRED 



18 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [9th Cent. 

have a chance to learn. Then it was that France repaid 
England for the loan of Alcuin, for priests taught in 
the schools which he had founded were induced to 
cross the Channel and become the teachers of the Eng- 
lish. 

There were few English books, however, and there 
was no one to make them but this busy king ; and just 
Alfred's as simply as Bede had taken up his pen to write 
transia- a history of the land, so Alfred set to work to 
translate books for his kingdom. Among the 
books that he translated were two that must have been 
of special interest to the English, Bede's Ecclesiastical 
History and a combined history and geography of the 
world, written five hundred years before Alfred's day by 
a Spanish monk called Orosius. The latter had long 
been a favorite school-book in the convents ; but, natu- 
rally, a geography that was five hundred years old was in 
need of revision, and Alfred became not only a trans- 
lator but a reviser. He never forgot that he was writing 
for his people, and whenever he came to an expression 
that would not be clear to them, he either explained it, 
or omitted it altogether. Whenever he could correct a 
mistake of Orosius's, he did so. 

11. The language of Alfred's time. In one way Al- 
fred had not only his translations to make, but his very 
language to invent. Latin is a finished, exact, accurate 
language ; the English of the ninth century was rude, 
childish, and awkward, and it was no easy task to in- 
terpret the clean-cut wording of the Latin into the loose, 
clumsy English phrases. Nevertheless, Alfred had no 
thought of imitating the Latin construction. The fol- 
lowing is a literal translation of part of the preface to 
one of his books that he sent to Waerferth, bishop of 
Worcester : — 



9 th Cent.] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



19 



Alfred the King bids to greet Waerferth the bishop with loving 
words and in friendly wise ; and I bid this be known to thee that 
it very often comes into my mind what wise men there were for- 
merly, both clergy and laymen ; and what blessed times there were 
then throughout England ; and how kings who had power over the 
nation in those days obeyed God and his ministers, and they both 
preserved peace, order, and authority at home and also increased 
their territory abroad ; and how they throve both in war and in 
wisdom ; and also the holy orders how zealous they were both in 
teaching and in learning, and in all the services that they ought 
to give to God ; and how people from abroad sought wisdom and 
teaching in this land ; and how we must now get them from with- 
out if we are to have them. 

Confused as this is, the king's earnestness shows in 
every word. He knows just what he means to say, and, 
language or no language, he contrives to say it. Bede's 
translation of the Gospel of Saint John disappeared 
centuries ago, and this preface of King Alfred's is the 
first bit of English prose that we possess. Literature 
had vanished from the north and was making its home 
in the south. 

12. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Another piece of 
literary and historical work we owe to Alfred, and that 
is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. In almost every con- 
vent the monks were accustomed to set down what 
seemed to them the most important events, such as the 
death of a king, an attack by the Danes, an unusually 
high tide, or an eclipse of the sun. One of these lists of 
events was kept in the convent at Winchester, Alfred's 
capital city, and the idea occurred to him of revising 
this table, adding to it from Bede's Ecclesiastical His- 
tory and other sources, and making it the beginning 
of a progressive history of his kingdom. It is possible 
that Alfred himself did this revising, and it can hardly 
be doubted that he wrote at least the accounts of some 
of his own battles with the Danes. 



20 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [ioth Cent. 



13. Death of Alfred. In 901, it was written in the 
Chronicle, "This year died Alfred, the son of Ethel- 
wulf." King Alfred left England apparently on the way 
to literary progress, if not greatness. The kingdom was 
at peace ; the Danes of the north and the English of the 
south were under one king, and were, nominally at least, 
ruled by the same laws ; churches had arisen over the 
kingdom ; convents had been built and endowed ; schools 

were increasing in 
number and in 
excellence ; books 
of practical worth 
had been trans- 
lated, probably 
more than have 
come down to us ; 
the people had 
been encouraged 
to learn the lan- 
guage of scholars, 
yet their own na- 
tive tongue had 
not been scorned, 
but rather raised to the rank of a literary language. 
There seemed every reason to expect national progress 
in all directions, and especially in matters intellectual. 

14. Literature during the 10th and 11th centuries. 
The contrary was the fact. For this there were two rea- 
sons : 1. Alfred's rule was a one-man power. His sub- 
jects studied because the king required study. Learned 
men came to England because the king invited them and 
rewarded them. At Alfred's death a natural reaction 
set in. The strong will and the generous hand were 
gone, the watchful eye of the king was closed. 2. The 




DEDICATION OF A SAXON CHURCH 
From an old manuscript 



toth-nth Cent.] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 21 

Danes renewed their attacks. It almost ceased to be a 
question of any moment whether England should ad- 
vance ; far more pressing was the question whether 
England should exist. The church was in a low state. 
The monks did not obey the rules of their orders, and 
many of the secular clergy were not only ignorant but 
openly wicked. About the middle of the tenth century, 
the monk Dunstan became abbot of Glastonbury, and 
he preached reforms so earnestly that both priests and 
people began to mend their ways. Moreover, the year 
iooo was approaching, and there was a general feeling 
that in that year the world would come to an end. A nat- 
ural result of this feeling was that the church became 
more active, and that great numbers of lives of saints 
appeared, and sermons, or homilies, as they were called. 

These homilies were not so uninteresting as their 
name sounds. To hold the attention of the people, the 
preachers were forced to be picturesque, and 
they gave in minute detail most vivid descrip- 
tions of places, saints, and demons about which they 
knew absolutely nothing. The saints were pictured as 
of fair complexion, with light hair and blue eyes. Satan 
was described as having dark, shaggy hair mihic 
hanging down to his ankles. Sparks flew from 955?-i020. 
his eyes and sulphurous flames from his mouth. The 
most famous writer of these homilies was yElfric, abbot 
of Ensham. 

In the first two centuries after Alfred, the old poems 
composed in the north were rewritten in the form in 
which they have come down to us, that is, in Rewriting 
the language of the south, of the West Saxons ; of old 
but little was produced that could be called poems " 
poetry. The Chronicle was continued, and one or two 
bold battle-songs were inserted. A few rude ballads were 



22 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [nth Cent. 



composed, with little of the old alliteration, and with only 
a beginning of appreciation of rhyme. One of these was 
the work of a king, Canute the Dane, who became ruler 
of England in 1017: — 

Merie sungen the munaches binnan Ely 
Canute's Tha Cnut ching reuther by : 

poem. « Rotheth cnites noer the land 

And here ye thes Munaches saeng." 

Joyously sang the monks in Ely 
When Canute the king rowed by. 
" Row, knights, nearer the land, 
And hear ye the song of the monks." 

Glancing back over the literature of England, we can 
see that it had been much affected by the influence of 
influence of tne Celts. From the sixth century to the ninth 
the celts, the Christian schools of Ireland were famous 
throughout Europe, and the Irish missionaries taught 
the religion of Christ to the Northumbrians. The 
Teutons and the Celts were not at all alike. The Teu- 
tons thought somewhat slowly. They were given to 
pondering on difficult subjects and trying to explain 
puzzling questions. The Celts thought and felt swiftly ; 
a word would make them smile, and a word would arouse 
their sympathy. The Teutons liked stories of brave 
chiefs who led their thegns in battle and shared with 
them the treasures that were won, of thegns who were 
faithful to their lord, and who at his death heaped up 
a great mound of earth to keep his name in lasting re- 
membrance. The Celts, too, were fond of stories, but 
stories that were full of bright and beautiful descriptions, 
of birds of brilliant coloring, of marvellous secrets, and 
of mysterious voices. They liked battle scenes wherein 
strange mists floated about the warriors and weird phan- 
toms were dimly seen in the gathering darkness. 



nth Cent.] EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



23 



To say just when and where the Celtic influence 
touched English literature is not easy ; but, comparing 
the grave, stern resolution of Beowulf, with the imagi- 
native beauty, the graceful fancy, and the tender senti- 
ment of the Dream of the Rood, and • the picturesque 
and witty descriptions of the homilies, one can but feel 
that there is something in the literature of the English 
Teutons which did not come from themselves, and which 
can be accounted for in no other way than by their con- 
tact with the Celts. 

15. William the Norman conquers England. The be- 
ginnings of a noble literature had been made in England, 
but the inspiration had become scanty. The English 
writer needed not only to read something better than he 
had yet produced, but even more he needed to know 
a race to whom that " something better " was familiar. 
In 1066, an event occurred that brought him both men 
and models : William the Norman conquered England 
and became its king. 

Centuries V-XI 

THE EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 



1. Poetry 
Beowulf. 
Widsith. 
Deor*s Lament. 
Caedmon. 
Cynewulf. 



2. Prose 

Bede. 
Alfred. 

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
Lives of saints and homilies. 



SUMMARY 
1. Poetry 

Our English ancestors lived in Jutland and the northern 
part of what is now Germany. They were savage warriors, 
but loved song and poetry. After their feasts the scop, or 



24 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [ 5 th-i ith Cent. 



poet, sang of the adventures of some hero. Little by little 
these songs were welded together and became an epic. One 
epic, Beowulf, has been preserved, though much changed by 
the teachings of the missionaries who came to England in 
597. Anglo-Saxon verse was marked by alliteration instead of 
rhyme. 

Besides Beowulf, little remains of the Anglo-Saxon poetry 
except what is contained in the Exeter Book and the Vercelli 
Book. 

The first poet whom we know by name was the monk 
Csedmon (seventh century), whose chief work was a paraphrase 
of the Scriptures. The greatest of the early poets was 
Cynewulf (eighth century). 

2. Prose 

One of the most famous pieces of English prose, a translation 
of the Gospel according to St. John, was written by the monk 
Bede (seventh and eighth centuries). He wrote on many sub- 
jects, but his most valuable work is his Ecclesiastical History. 

Alcuin (eighth century) carried on English scholarship in 
France. England was harassed by the Danes, but after King 
Alfred (ninth century) had brought about peace, Alcuin's 
pupils became teachers of the English. 

King Alfred made several valuable translations. The pre- 
face of one of them is the earliest piece of English prose that 
we still possess. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was formally 
begun in his reign. 

The death of Alfred and the renewed attacks of the Danes 
retarded the literary progress of England. The preaching of 
Dunstan and the near approach of the year 1000 called out 
lives of saints, and homilies written by ^Elfric and others. 
Old poems were rewritten, and rude ballads were composed. 
The influence of the Celts for beauty, fancy, and wit may be 
seen in both poetry and prose. English literature had made 
a good beginning, but needed better models. 



CHAPTER II 



CENTURIES XII AND XIII 

THE NORMAN-ENGLISH PERIOD 

16. Advantages of the conquest. Nothing better 
could have happened to England than this Norman con- 
quest. The Englishmen of the eleventh century were 
courageous and persistent, but the spark of inspiration 
that gives a people the mastery of itself and the leader- 
ship of other nations was wanting. England was like 
a great vessel rolling in the trough of the sea, turning 
broadside to every wave. The country must fall into 
the hands of either the barbaric north or the civilized 
south. Happily for England, the victor was of the south. 

The Normans were Teutons, who had fallen upon 
France as their kinsmen had fallen upon England ; but 
the invaders of France had been thrown among The 
a race superior to them in manners, language, Normans, 
and literature. These northern pirates gave a look 
about them, and straightway they began to follow the 
customs of the people whom they had conquered. They 
embraced the Christian religion and built churches and 
monasteries as if they had been to the manner born. 
They forgot their own language and adopted that of 
France. They intermarried with the French ; and in a 
century and a half a new race had arisen with the brav- 
ery and energy of the Northmen and an aptitude for 
even more courtly manners and even wider literary cul- 
ture than the French themselves. 



26 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [i2th-i4th Cent. 

17. The struggle between the French and English 
languages. Such were the Norman conquerors of Eng- 
land. How would their coming affect the language and 
the literature of the subject country ? It was three hun- 
dred years before the question was fully answered. At 
first the Norman spoke French, the Englishman spoke 
English, and both nations used Latin in the church ser- 
vice. Little by little, the Norman found it convenient to 
know something of the language spoken by the masses of 
the people around him. Little by little, the Englishman 
acquired some knowledge of the language of his rulers. 
Words that were nearly alike in both tongues were con- 
fused in pronunciation, and as for spelling, — a man's 
mode of spelling was his private property, and he did 
with his own as he would. It is hard to trace the history 
of the two languages in England until we reach the 
fourteenth century, and then there are some few land- 
marks. In 1300, Oxford allowed people who had suits at 
law to plead in "any language generally understood." 
Fifty years later, English was taught to some extent in 
the schools. In 1362, it became the official language of 
the courts. In 1385, John of Trevisa wrote, "In all the 
grammar schools of England children give up French 
and construe and learn in English, and have thereby 
advantage on one side and disadvantage on another. 
Their advantage is that they learn their grammar in less 
time than children were wont to do ; the disadvantage 
is that now grammar-school children know no more 
French than their left heel knows." In 1400, the Earl 
of March offered his aid to the king and wrote his let- 
ter in English, making no further apology for using 
his native tongue than the somewhat independent one, 
" It is more clear to my understanding than Latin or 
French." 



I2th-I3th Cent.] THE NORMAN-ENGLISH PERIOD 27 

In this contest, three centuries long, English had come 
off victor, but it was a different English from that of 
earlier times. Hundreds of new nouns, verbs, The new 
and adjectives had entered it, but they had En e Usl1 - 
been forced to wear the English garb. To speak broadly, 
verbs had adopted English endings; adjectives had 
adopted English comparisons ; nouns had given up their 
case-endings and also their gender in great degree, for 
the simplest remedy for the frequent conflict between 
the English and French gender was to drop all distinc- 
tions of gender so far as inanimate objects were con- 
cerned. 

How did the coming of the Norman affect the litera- 
ture of England ? As soon as the shock of conquest \vas 
somewhat past, the English unconsciously began, in the 
old Teutonic fashion, to look about them and see what 
ways worthier than their own they could adopt. They 
had refused to become a French-speaking people, but was 
there any thing in Norman literature and literary methods 
worthy of their imitation, or rather assimilation ? 

18. Opening of the universities and the crusades. 
The Normans had a taste for history, they were a reli- 
gious people, and they thoroughly enjoyed story-telling. 
Two other influences were brought to bear upon the 
English : the opening of the universities and the cru- 
sades. The first made it possible for a man to obtain 
an education even if he had no desire to become a priest. 
The second threw open the treasures of the world. 
Thousands set out on these expeditions to rescue the 
tomb of Christ from the power of the unbelievers. Those 
who returned brought with them a wealth of new ideas. 
They had seen new countries and new manners. They 
had learned to think new thoughts. 

The opening of the universities made it possible for 



28 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [13th Cent. 



chronicles to be written, not only by monks in the mon- 
asteries, but by men who lived in the midst of the 
events that they described. Chronicles were 

Chronicles. . J . . „ 

no longer mere annals ; they became full of 
detail, vivid, interesting. 

19. Devotional books. The religious energy of the 
Normans and the untiring zeal of the preachers strength- 
ened the English interest in religious matters. The 
sacred motive of the crusades intensified it, and books 
of devotion appeared, not in Latin, like the chronicles, 
but in simple, every-day English. One of the best known 
The of these was the Ormulum, a book which gives 

about 1Um ' a metl "i ca l paraphrase of the Gospels as used 
1215-1220. in the church service, each portion followed 
by a metrical sermon. Its author kept a sturdy hold 
upon his future fame in his couplet, — 

Thiss boc iss nemmnedd Orrmulum 
Forrthi thatt Orm itt worhhte. 

He was equally determined that his lines should be pro- 
nounced properly, and so after every short vowel he 
doubled the consonant. He even gave advance orders 
to whoever should copy his work : — 

And whoso shall will to write this book again another time, I bid 
him that he write it correctly, so as this book teacheth him, en- 
tirely as it is upon this first pattern, with all such rhymes as here 
are set with just as many words, and that he look well that he write 
a letter twice where it upon this book is written in that wise. 1 

Another of these books of devotion was the Ancren 
Riwle, a little prose work whose author is un- 

The Ancren r 

Riwie, known. Its object was to guide three sisters 
about 1225. who w i srie d to withdraw from the world, though 
without taking the vows of the convent. It is almost 
1 Translated in Morley's English Writers, iii. 



1 2th Cent] THE NORMAN-ENGLISH PERIOD 29 



sternly strict, but so pure and natural and earnest that 
it was deeply loved and appreciated. 

20. Romances. The Norman delight in stories and 
the new ideas given by the crusades aroused in the Eng- 
lish a keen love of romance. The conquest itself was 
romantic. The chivalry introduced by the Normans was 




SIR LAUNCELOT AND A HERMIT 
From an illuminated MS. of 13 16 



picturesque. It adorned the stern Saxon idea of duty 
with richness and grace. Simple old legends took form 
and beauty. Four great cycles of romance _ M 

J . . - J . The four 

were produced ; that is, four groups of stories cycles of 

told in metre, each centred about some one romance - 
hero. One was about Charlemagne, one about Alexan- 
der the Great, one told the tale of the fall of Troy, and 
one pictured King Arthur and his knights. This last 

cycle had a curious history. Before the middle „ „ 
J J Geoffrey of 

of the twelfth century, one Geoffrey of Mon- Monmouth, 
mouth, a Welsh bishop, wrote in Latin an ex- 1110 " 1154 - 
ceedingly fanciful History of the Kings of Britain. It 



30 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [13th Cent. 



was translated into French by a clerk named Wace ; 
was carried to France ; wandered over the Continent, 
where it was smoothed and beautified, and gained the 
stories of Launcelot and the Holy Grail ; then returned 
to England, and was put into English verse by the 
Layamon's English priest Layamon. He called it the 
Brut, about Brut, or story of Brutus, a fabled descendant 
1205# of ^Eneas, who was claimed to have landed on 
the shores of England in prehistoric times. This cycle 
was the special favorite of the English. The marvellous 
adventures of King Arthur's knights interested those 
who had been thrilled by the stories of returning cru- 
saders ; and the quest of the knights for but one glance 
of that Holy Thing, the Grail, was in full accord with the 
spirit of the crusades, an earthly journey with a spiritual 
gain as its object and reward. 

The Chronicle came to an end in 1 1 54. The Orntulum> 
the Ancren Riwle, and the Brut all belong to the early 
part of the thirteenth century. They are English in 
French their feeling ; but as the years passed, French 
romances, romances were sung throughout the land, — in 
French where French was understood, in English trans- 
lation elsewhere. One of the best liked of these was 
King Horn. Its story is : — 

The kingdom of Horn's father is invaded by the 
King Horn Saracens, who kill the father and put Horn 
probably and his companions to sea. King Aylmar re- 
after 1250. ce - yes t h erri) an( j orders them to be taught 

various duties. Of Horn he says : — 

And tech him to harpe 
With his nayles fcharpe, 
Bivore me to kerve 
And of the cupe lerve, — 

the usual accomplishments of the page. The king's 



13th Cent.] THE NORMAN-ENGLISH PERIOD 31 

daughter, Rymenhild, falls in love with Horn ; and no 
wonder, if the description of him is correct. 

He was bright fo the glas, 
He was whit fo the flur, 
Rofe red was his colur, 
In none kinge-riche 
Nas non his iliche. 

He goes in quest of adventures, to prove himself worthy 
of Rymenhild. The course of their love does not run 
smooth. King Aylmar presents a most eligible king as 
his daughter's suitor ; Horn's false friend tries to win 
her ; she is shut up in an island castle ; but Horn, in 
the disguise of a gleeman, makes his way into the castle 
and wins his Rymenhild. He kills his false friend ; he 
finds that his mother still lives ; he regains his father's 
kingdom ; and so the tale ends. This story is thoroughly 
French in its treatment of woman. In Beowulf, the 
wife of the lord is respected and honored, she is her 
lord's friend and helpmeet ; but there is no romance 
about the matter. To picture the smile of woman as the 
reward of valor, and her hand as the prize of victory, 
was left to the verses of those poets who were familiar 
with the glamour of knighthood. 

21. The Norman-English love of nature. This new 
race, the Norman-English, enjoyed romance, they liked 
the new and the unwonted, but there was ever a warm 
corner in their hearts for nature. The dash of the 
waves, the keen breath of the northern wind, the coming 
of spring, the song of the cuckoo, the gleam of the 
daisy, — they loved them all; and in the midst of the 
romances of knights and Saracens and foreign Nature 
countries, they felt a tenderness toward what lyrlcs " 
was their very own, the world of nature. Simple, tender, 
graceful little lyric poems slipped in shyly among the 



32 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [13th Cent. 



more pretentious histories, religious handbooks, and 
paraphrases. Here are bits from them : — 

Sumer is icumen in, 

Llude sing cuccu ! 
Groweth sed, and bloweth med, 

And springth the wude nu, 
Sing, cuccu ! 

or this : — 

Dayes-eyes in the dales, 
Notes sweete of nightingales, 
Each fowl song singeth, 

or this, which has a touch of the French love ro- 
mance : — 

Blow, northern wind, 
Send thou me my suetyng. 
Blow, northern wind, 
Blow, blow, blow ! 

22. The Robin Hood ballads. Not only love of na- 
ture but love of freedom and love of justice inspired the 
ballads of Robin Hood, many of which must have origi- 
« nated during this period, though probably they did not 
take their present form till much later. They are crude, 
simple stories in rhyme of the exploits of Robin Hood 
and his men, and they come straight from the heart of 
the Englishman, that bold, defiant heart which always 
beat more fiercely at the thought of injustice. Robin 
and his friends are exiles because they have dared to 
shoot the king's deer, and they have taken up their 
abode in " merry Sherwood." There they waylay the 
sheriff and the " proud bishop," and force them to open 
their well-filled purses and count out the gold pieces 
that are to make life easier for many a poor man. These 
ballads were not for palaces or for monasteries, they 
were for the English people ; and the ballad-singers 



1 3th Cent] THE NORMAN-ENGLISH PERIOD 



33 




A BAND OF MINSTRELS 
From a fourteenth-century MS. 



went about from village to village, singing to one group 
after another, adding a rhyme, or a stanza, or an adventure 
at every repetition. Gradually the tales of the "cour- 
teous outlaw " were forming themselves into a cycle of 
romance, but the days 
of the printing-press 
came too soon for its 
completion. Whether 
Robin was ever a 
"real, live hero" is 
not of the least con- 
sequence. The point 
of interest is that the 
ballads which picture 
his adventures are 
the free, bold expres- 
sion of the sincere feelings of the Englishman in the 
early years of his forced submission to Norman rule. 

23. Value of the Norman-English writings. The 
writings of the first two centuries after the Norman con- 
quest are, as a whole, of small worth. With the increas- 
ing number of translations, such a world of literature 
was thrown open to the English that they were dazzled 
with excess of light. Daringly, but half timidly, they 
ventured to step forward, to try one thing after another. 
No one could expect finish and completeness ; the most 
that could be looked for was some beginning of poetry 
that should show imagination, of prose that should show 
power. So ended the thirteenth century, in a kind of 
morning twilight of literature. The fourteenth was the 
time of the dawning, the century of Chaucer. 



* 



34 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [i2th-i3th Cent. 



Centuries XII and XIII 



THE NORMAN-ENGLISH PERIOD 



Ormulum. 
Ancr en Riwle. 
Cycles of romance. 



Layamon's Brut. 
French romances. 



King Arthur. 



Charlemagne. 



King Horn. 
Nature lyrics. 



Alexander. 



Fall of Troy. 



Robin Hood ballads. 



SUMMARY 



The Norman Conquest affected both language and litera- 
ture. English, French, and Latin were used in England ; but 
English gradually prevailed, until in 1362 it became the official 
language of the courts. Many new words had been added 
and its grammar simplified. 

The literary influence of the Normans was for history, re- 
ligious writings, and story-telling. Two other influences helped 
to arouse the English to mental activity, — the opening of the 
universities and the crusades. 

The chief immediate literary results of this intellectual 
stimulus were the chronicles, now written by men who were 
not monks, and books of devotion. Among the latter was the 
Ormulum and the Aneren Riwle. 

Love of story-telling manifested itself in four cycles of ro- 
mance, centring about Charlemagne, Alexander the Great, 
the fall of Troy, and King Arthur. This last cycle went 
through the hands of Geoffrey of Monmouth, Wace, Layamon, 
and others. French romances were popular, especially King 
Horn. 

Love of nature inspired simple, sincere lyrics ; love of free- 
dom and justice inspired the Robin Hood ballads. 

The writings of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are of 
little intrinsic value, but foreshadow better work to come. 



CHAPTER III 



CENTURY XIV 

CHAUCER'S CENTURY 

24. England in the fourteenth century. The four- 
teenth century was not only the dawning of modern 
English literature, but it was the dawning of Tnebegin- 
English thought. Before this time kings had 5^ g g u °£ 
thought how to keep their thrones ; barons had thought, 
thought how to prevent kings from becoming too power- 
ful ; priests and monks had thought, sometimes how to 
teach the people, sometimes how to get the most possible 
from them ; but the masses of the English people never 
seemed to think of anything that was of interest to them 
all until about the middle of the fourteenth century. 

One special reason for this beginning of English 
thought was that many thousands of Englishmen had 
become more free than ever before. England had long 
been controlled by what is known as the feu- Thef e U dai 
dal system ; that is, a tenure of land on condi- system, 
tion of service. The cultivated portions of England 
were divided into great manors, or farms, and each 
was held by some rich man' on condition of giving his 
service to the king. On these manors lived the masses 
of the people, the villeins, or peasants. They were 
obliged as part of their duty to work for their lord a cer- 
tain number of days every year, and they were forbid- 
den to leave the manor. During the crusades, the lords 
who went to the Holy Land needed a great deal of 
money, and they often allowed their tenants to give 



36 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [14th Cent. 

them money instead of service. Sometimes they sold 
them land. These crusades came to an end in the thir- 
teenth century, and even during the early years of the 
fourteenth the peasants were beginning to feel some- 
what independent. 

In 1338, the Hundred Years' War broke out between 
England and France. In 1346, an important battle 
changed was won at Crecy, not by English knights 
of the 10 " on norse Dack with swords and lances, but by 
peasants. English peasants on foot with no weapons ex- 
cept bows and arrows. Then the peasants began to say 
to one another, " We can protect ourselves. Why should 
we remain on manors and depend upon knights in 
armor to fight for us ? " Following close upon this bat- 
tle was a terrible disease, called the Black Death, which 
swept over England. When it had gone, half of the 
people of the land were dead. Many of those peasants 
who survived ran away from the manors, for now that 
there were so few workmen, they could earn high wages 
anywhere. Moreover, weaving had been introduced, 
and if they did not wish to do farm-work, they could sup- 
port themselves in any city. The king and his counsel- 
lors made severe laws against this running away ; but 
they could not well be enforced, and they only made the 
peasants angry with all who were richer or more power- 
ful than themselves. They began to question, " How 
are these lords any greater folk than we ? How do they 
deserve wealth any more than we ? They came from 
Adam and Eve just as we did." 

The masses of the people, then, were angry with the 
Discontent nobles and the other wealthy men. They were 
with the also discontented with the church. After the 
Black Death there was hardly a person in Eng- 
land who was not mourning the loss of dear friends. Es- 



1 4 th Cent.] CHAUCER'S CENTURY 37 

pecially the poor longed for the comfort that the church 
should have given them ; but the church paid little atten- 
tion to their needs. Many of the clergy who received 
the income from English benefices lived in Italy, and 
had no further interest in England than to get as much 
from the land as possible. While the peasants were in 
such poverty, vast sums of money were being sent to 
these Italian priests, for fully half the land was in the 
hands of the church. The church did less and less for 
men, while the vision of what it might do was growing 
clearer. Thousands of these unhappy, discontented pea- 
sants marched up to London to demand of the The 
king their freedom and other rights and privi- Revolt^ 
leges. This was the Peasants' Revolt of 138 1. issi. 
Their demands were not granted, and the revolters were 
severely punished. 

In this century of unrest and change there were four 
authors whose writings are characteristic of Four 
the manner in which four classes of people re- prominent 
garded the state of matters. They were : authors ' 
1. " Sir John Mandeville," who simply accepted things as 
they were ; 2. William Langland, or Langley, who criti- 
cised and wished to reform ; 3. Wyclif, who criticised and 
wished to overthrow ; and 4. Chaucer, the good-humored 
aristocrat, who saw the faults of his times, but gently 
ridiculed them rather than preached against them. 

25. The Voyages and Travels of Sir John Mande- 
ville, Kt. This account of distant countries and strange 
peoples purports to have been written by Sir John him- 
self. He claims to be an English knight who has often 
journeyed to Jerusalem, and who puts forth this volume 
to serve as a guide-book to those wishing to make the 
pilgrimage. The introduction seems so " real " that it 
is a pity to be obliged to admit that the work is prob- 



38 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [14th Cent. 



ably a combination of a few travellers' stories and a 
vast amount of imagination, and that, worse than all, 
there never was any " Sir John." It was first written 
in French, and then translated into English either in 




SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE ON HIS VOYAGE TO PALESTINE 
From an old MS. in the British Museum 



the fourteenth century or the early part of the fifteenth. 
The traveller has most marvellous experiences. He finds 
that in the Dead Sea iron will float, while a feather will 
drop to the bottom. "And these be things against kind 
[nature]," says Sir John. He sees in Africa people who 
have but one foot. " They go so fast that it is marvel," 
he declares, "and the foot is so large that it shadow- 
eth all the body against the sun when they will lie 
and rest themselves." Sometimes he brings in a bit of 
science. From his observations of the North Star he 



1 4th Cent.] 



CHAUCER'S CENTURY 



39 



reasons that" Men may go all round the world and return 
to their country ; and always, they would find men, lands, 
and isles, as well as in our part of the world." When 
he touches on religious customs, he becomes especially in- 
teresting, for in the midst of the unrest and discontent 
of his age he has no fault to find with the laws or the 
church ; and with all his devotion to the church, he has 
no blame for those whose belief differs from his own. 
" They fail in some articles of our faith," is his only 
criticism of the Moslems. 

26. William Langland, 1332-1400. William Lang- 
land wrote the Vision of Piers Plowman. Very little 
is known of Langland save that he was proba- The vision 
blv a clerk of the church. He knew the lives ° f i piers 

J Plowman, 

of the poor so well that it is possible he was first 
the son of a peasant living on a manor, and be- i362° n ' 
came free on declaring his intention to enter wea. 
the service of the church. His Vision comes to him 
one May morning when, as he says — in the alliterative 
verse of Beowulf but in words much more like modern 
English : — 

I was wery forwandred 1 and went me to reste 
Under a brode banke bi a bornes 2 side, 
And as I lay and lened and loked in the wateres, 
I slombred in a slepyng ; it sweyned 3 so merye. 

In his dream he sees " a faire felde full of folke." There 
are plowmen, hermits, men who buy and sell, minstrels, 
jugglers, beggars, pilgrims, lords and ladies, a king, a 
jester, and many others. They are all absorbed in their 
own affairs, but Repentance preaches to them so ear- 
nestly about their sins that finally they all vow to make 
a pilgrimage to the shrine of Truth. No one can tell 
them where to find the shrine. At last they ask Piers 
1 weary with wandering. 2 brook's, 3 sounded. 



40 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [14th Cent. 

the Plowman to go with them and show them the way. 
" If I had plowed and sowed my half-acre, I would go 
with you," he replied. The pilgrims agree to help him, 
and he sets them all to work. While they are working, 
God sends a pardon for them ; but a priest who sees it 
declares that it is no pardon, for it says only that if men 
do well, they shall be saved. 

This ends the vision, but Piers dreams again. " Do 
well, do better, do best," is the keynote of this dream. 
"Doweii One does well who is moral and upright; he 
do better, does better who is filled with love and kind- 
ness ; he does best who follows most closely 
the life of the Christ. Finally, Piers is seen in a halo 
of light, for this leader who works and loves and strives 
to save others represents the Christ himself. 

This work is the last important poem written in the 
old alliterative metre of Beowulf. It is an allegory, and 
there are in it such characters as Lady Meed (bribery), 
Holy Church, Conscience, Sir Work-well-with-thine- 
hand, Sir Goodfaith Gowell, Guile, and Reason. Rea- 
son's two horses are Advise-thee-before and Suffer-till- 
I-see-my-time. The liking for allegories came from the 
French, but the puzzling over hard questions of life and 
destiny was one of the characteristics of the early Teu- 
tons. Langland saw the trouble and wrong around him ; 
he saw the hard lives of the poor and the laws, that 
oppressed them ; he saw just where the church failed to 
teach and to comfort them ; yet this fourteenth-century 
Puritan never thought of revolt. Some few changes in 
the laws, more earnestness and sincerity in the church, 
and above all, an effort on the part of each to "do 
best," — ■ and the eager reformer believed that happiness 
would smile upon the world of England. In 1361, only 
one year before this poem was written, the Black Death 



1324-1384] CHAUCER'S CENTURY 



41 



had for the second time swept over the land. For the 
second time a great wave of hopeless sorrow and help- 
lessness had overwhelmed the hearts of the people. 
Langland had put into words what was in every one's 
thoughts. It is no wonder that his poem was read by 
thousands ; that m'en saw more clearly than ever the 




JOHN WYCLIF 

evils of the times; that they began to look about them 
for strength to bear their lives, for help to make them 
better. 

27. John Wyclif, 1324-1384. The strength and 
help were already on the way, for while Lang- Wyciifs 

tt 1 ij.,- , 1 • translation 

land was planning some additions to his poem, ofthe Bible 
a learned clergyman named John Wyclif was 1380. 
translating the Bible into the language of the people. 



42 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1364-1384 



Wyclif was a very interesting man. Until he was about 
forty, he was a quiet student and preacher. Suddenly 
he appeared in public as the opponent of the pope him- 
self. The pope claimed that England had not paid him 
his proper tax for many years. " We need the money," 
declared Wyclif, "and surely a people has a right to 
self-preservation." The king and the clergy supported 
the bold patriot, and they were not at all annoyed while 
he preached against the sins of the monks ; but when he 
was not satisfied with calling for the purification of the 
church, and for better lives on the part of the clergy and 
the monks, but began to preach and write against tran- 
substantiation and other doctrines, they were indignant. 
The authorities in England tried to arrest him, and the 
pope commanded that he be brought to Rome ; but still 
he sent his tracts over the length and breadth of the 
country. Pie wrote no more in Latin, but in simple, 
straightforward English that the plain people could 
understand. Such is the English of his translation of 
the Scriptures. The following is a specimen of its lan- 
guage : — 

Blessid be pore men in spirit: for the kyngdom of hevenes is 
herum. Blessid ben mylde men : for thei schulen weelde the 
erthe. Blessid ben thei that mournen : for thei schal be coumfortid. 
Blessid be thei that hungren and thirsten after rigtwisnesse : for 
thei schal be fulfillid. Blessid ben merciful men : for thei schal 
gete mercy. Blessid Den thei that ben of clene herte : for thei 
schulen se god : Blessid ben pesible men : for thei schulen be 
clepid goddis children. Blessid ben thei that suffren persecucioun 
for rightwisnesse : for the kyngdom of heavens is hern. 

Many churchmen honestly believed that it was wrong 
to give the Bible to those who were not scholars, lest 
they should not understand it aright ; and even more 
were either shocked or angry at Wyclif's daring to crit- 



1340-1400] CHAUCER'S CENTURY 



43 



icise the teachings of the church and the lives of the 
clergy. Persecution arose against the preacher persecution 
and his followers. He was protected by power- ofW y clif - 
ful friends ; but, forty years after his death, his grave 
was opened, his bones burned, and the ashes tossed 
scornfully into the river Swift. It was easier, however, 
for his opponents to fling away his ashes than to destroy 
his influence upon the people and upon the language. 
His Bible was in manuscript, of course, because printing 
had not yet been invented ; but it was read and reread 
by thousands, and the plain, strong words used by him- 
self and his assistants became a part of the every-day 
language. Moreover, this translation showed that an 
English sentence need not be loose and rambling, but 
might be as clear and definite as a Latin sentence; that 
English as well as Latin could express close reasoning 
and keen argument. 

28. Geoffrey Chaucer, 13409-1400. While Wyclif 
was preaching at Oxford and Langland had not yet 
begun to work on his Vision, a young page was grow- 
ing up in the house of the Duke of Clarence who was 
destined to become the prince of story-tellers in verse. 
This young Geoffrey Chaucer was the son of a wine 
merchant of London. He lived like other courtiers ; he 
went to France to help fight his king's battles, was taken 
prisoner, was ransomed and set free. He wrote some 
love verses in the French fashion and translated some 
French poems, but he would have been somewhat amazed 
if any one had told him that he would be known five hun- 
dred years later as the "Father of English Poetry." 

By 1372, the young courtier had become a man "of 
some respect," and the king sent him on diplomatic mis- 
sions to various countries, twice at least to Italy. The 
literature of Italy was far in advance of that of England, 



44 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1372-1400 

and now the works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio 

were open to the poet diplomat. Finally, Chaucer was 

again in England ; and when he wrote, he wrote like an 

Englishman, but like an Englishman who was familiar 

with the best that France and Italy had to give. 

29. The Canterbury Tales. A collection of stories 

written by Boccaccio was probably what suggested to 

Chaucer the writing of a similar collection. 
Boccaccio } & 

and Boccaccio's stories are told by a company of 

Chaucer. friends who have fled from the plague-stricken 
city of Florence to a villa in the country. Chaucer made 
a plan that allowed even more variety, for his stories 
are told by a company who were going on a pilgrimage 
to the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. Boc- 
caccio's people were of nearly the same rank ; but on 
a pilgrimage all sorts of folk were sure to meet, and 
therefore Chaucer was perfectly free to introduce any 
kind of person that he chose. 

Making a pilgrimage was a common thing in those 
Pilgrim- days, and people went for various reasons : some 
ages - to pray and make offerings to the saint that 
they believed had helped them in sickness or trouble, 
some to petition for a favor, some for the pleasure of 
making a journey, and some simply because others were 
going. Travelling alone was not agreeable and not 
always safe, therefore these pilgrims often set out in com- 
panies, and a merry time they made of it. Some even 
took minstrels and bagpipes to amuse them on the road. 

The Canterbury Tales is Chaucer's best work. It be- 
gins on a bright spring morning, when he had gone to 
the Tabard Inn in Southwark for the first stage in his 
pilgrimage to Canterbury. Just at night a party of 
twenty-nine rode* up to the door of the inn, and the 
solitary traveller was delighted to find that they, too, 



1372-1400] CHAUCER'S CENTURY 



45 



had set out on the same errand. There was nothing 
shy or unsocial about this pilgrim, and before bedtime 
came, he had made friends with them all, and had agreed 
to join their party. A very cheerful party it was, and 
these good-natured travellers were pleased with the 
rooms, the stables, the supper, the wine, and especially 
with the landlord, Harry Bailey, whom the poet calls 
"a merry man." After supper the host tells them that 
he never before saw so cheerful a company together at 
his inn. Then he talks about their journey. He says he 
knows well that they are not planning to make a gloomy 
time of it. 



For trewely confort ne myrthe is noon 
To ride by the weye doumb as a stoon, 

he declares ; and he proposes that each one of them shall 
tell two stories going and two more returning, and that 
when they have come back, a supper shall be given to 
the one who has told the 
best story. This pleases 
the pilgrims, and they are 
even more pleased when 
the cheery landlord offers 
to go with them, to be their 
guide and to judge the 
merit of the tales. 

Then come the stories 
themselves. There are only 
twenty-five of them, and 
three of those are incom- 
plete, for Chaucer never 
carried out his full plan. 
They are of all kinds. There are stories of knights and 
monks ; of giants, fairies, miracles ; of the crafty fox who 




THE PRIORESS 
From the Ellesmere MS., which is the best 
as well as one of the oldest of the Chau- 
cer MSS. 



4 6 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1372-1400 




ran away with Chanticleer in his bag, but was persuaded 
by the no less crafty rooster to drop the bag and make 
a speech of defiance to his pursuers. There are sto- 
ries of magic swords that 
would cut through any 
kind of armor, and there 
is a tale of " faire Erne- 
lye,-" the beloved of two 
young knights, one of 
whom was in prison and 
could gaze upon her only 
from afar, while the other 
was forbidden on pain of 
death to enter the city 
wherein she dwelt. 

After the fashion of his 
day, Chaucer took the 
plots of his tales from 
wherever he might find them, but it is his way of tell- 
Chaucer's ing the stories that is so fascinating. We can- 
styie. not help fancying that he is talking directly to 
us, for he drops in so many little confidential " asides." 
" I have told you about the company of pilgrims," he 
says, " and now it is time to tell you what we did that 
night, and after that I will talk about our journey." 
At the end of a subject he is fond of saying, "That 
is all. There is no more to say." He is equally con- 
fidential when he describes his various characters, as 
he does in the Prologue before he begins his story- 
telling. It was no easy task to describe each one of a 
large company so accurately that we can almost see 
them, and so interestingly that we are in no haste to 
come to the stories ; but Chaucer was successful. He 
describes the knight, who had just returned from a jour- 



THE WIFE OF BATH 
From the Harleian MS. 



1372-1400] CHAUCER'S CENTURY 47 



ney, and was so eager to make his grateful pilgrimage 
that he had set out with his short cassock Chaucer's 
still stained from his coat of mail; the dainty characters - 
young prioress, who had such perfect table-manners that 
she never dipped her fingers deep in the gravy — an 
important matter to table-mates before forks were in 
use — or let a drop fall on her breast ; the sailor, whose 
beard had been shaken by many a tempest ; the phy- 
sician, who had not his equal in the whole world ; the 
woman of Bathe, with her 
"scarlet red" stockings, 
her soft new shoes, and 
her hat as broad as a 
buckler ; and the gay 
young squire, whose gown 
" with sieves longe and 
wyde" was so richly em- 
broidered that it looked 
like a meadow "al ful of 
fresshe floures whyte and 
reede." Chaucer gives us 
a picture of the merry 
company, but more than 
that, he shows us what 
kind of people they were. 
He tells us their faults in 
satire as keen as it is good-natured. The monk likes 
hunting better than obeying strict convent rules, and 
Chaucer says of him slyly that when he rode, men could 
hear the little bells on his bridle jingle quite as loud 
as the bell of the chapel. The learned physician was 
somewhat of a miser, and Chaucer whispers cannily, — 

For gold in phisik is a cordial, 
Therefore he lovede gold in special. 




THE SQUIRE 
From the Ellesmere MS. 



4 8 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1372-1400 




THE PARSON 
From the Ellesmere MS. 



The two characters for whom the poet has most sym- 
pathy are the thin arid threadbare Oxford student, who 

would rather have books 
than gorgeous robes or 
musical instruments ; and 
the earnest, faithful par- 
ish priest, who " Christes 
Gospel trewely wolde 
preche," and who never 
hired some one to take 
charge of his parish while 
he slipped away to live an 
easy life in a brotherhood. 

This keen - eyed poet, 
with his warm sympathy, 
could hardly have helped 
loving nature, and he can picture a bright, dewy May 
Chaucer's mornm g s0 clearly that we can almost see 
love of "the silver dropes hangyng on the leves." 
nature. pj e ]y[ a y an( j sunshine and birds and 

lilies and roses. He liked the daisy, and when he 
caught sight of the first one, he wrote : — 

And down on knees anon right I me set, 
And as I could this freshe flower I grette, 
Kneeling always till it inclosed was 
Upon the small and soft and sweete grass. 

30. Death of Chaucer, 1400. Chaucer's life was not 
all sunshine, but he was always sunny and bright. He 
writes as if he knew so many pleasant things that he 
could not help taking up his pen to tell us of them. His 
death occurred in 1400, and that date is counted as the 
end of the old literature and the beginning of the new. 
Chaucer well deserves the title, " Father of English 
Poetry;" but when we read his poems, we forget his 



1372-1400] CHAUCER'S CENTURY 



49 



titles and his learning, and think of him only as the 
best of story-tellers. 

We owe gratitude to Chaucer not only because he left 
us some delightful poems, but because he broke away 
from the old Anglo-Saxon metre and because he wrote 
in English. The Canterbury Tales begins : — 

Whan that Aprille with hise shoures soote 

The droghte of March hath perced to the roote, 

And bathed every veyne in swich licour Chaucer's 

Of which vertu engendred is the flour ; language. 

Whan Zephirus eek with his swete breeth 

Inspired hath in every holt and heeth 

The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne 

Hath in the Ram his halfe cours y-ronne, 

And smale foweles maken melodye 

That slepen al the nyght with open eye, — 

So priketh hem Nature in hir corages, — 

Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages. 

This is written in the 5- 
beat line, which gives 
more freedom than the 
4-beat line of Beowulf. 
Alliteration is not em- 
ployed to mark the ac- 
cented syllables, but only 
to ornament the verse. 
Chaucer used many 
French words and often 
retained the French end- 
ings ; but he used them 
so easily and so appropri- 
ately that they seemed to 
become a part of the lan- 
guage. Another service 
and an even greater one 




ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [14th Cent. 



he rendered to the English tongue. People in different 
parts of England spoke in English, to be sure, but in 
widely differing dialects. Chaucer wrote in what was 
known as the Midland dialect, and his work was so good 
and so well liked that it had a powerful influence to fix 
the language ; that is, to make his writings and his 
vocabulary models for the authors who succeeded him. 

Century XIV 

CHAUCER'S CENTURY 

" Sir John Mandeville." John Wyclif. 

William Langland. Geoffrey Chaucer. 

SUMMARY 

The weakening of the feudal system brought about the 
dawning of English thought. The causes of this weakening 
were : — 

1. The lords, wishing to become crusaders, often accepted 
money instead of work. 

2. In the Hundred Years' War the peasants discovered 
their power. 

3. The Black Death lessened the number of workers, and 
enabled men to find farm-work where they chose and to de- 
mand what wages they liked. 

4. The introduction of weaving made it possible for pea- 
sants to support themselves without working on the land. 

Harsh laws aroused discontent with the government ; the 
negligence of the clergy aroused discontent with the church. 
This discontent showed itself finally in the Peasants' Revolt 
of 1381. 

Four writers are typical of the four chief classes of people : — 

1. " Sir John Mandeville," who accepted things as they 
were. 

2. William Langland, who in Piers Plowman showed his 
wish to bring about reforms. 



1 4th Cent.] 



CHAUCER'S CENTURY 



51 



3. John Wyclif, who wished to overthrow rather than to 
reform. He and his assistants translated the Bible into 
English. Its clear, strong phrasing became a part of the 
every-day speech, and did much to fix the language by show- 
ing its powers. 

4. Geoffrey Chaucer, who good-naturedly ridiculed the faults 
of his times. Chaucer's great work is the Canterbury Tales, 
which was probably suggested by Boccaccio's Decameron. 
Chaucer abandoned the early Anglo-Saxon metre and wrote 
in rhymed heroic verse. His work was so excellent that it 
fixed the Midland dialect as the literary language of England. 



CHAPTER IV 



CENTURY XV 

THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 

31. The imitators of Chaucer. Chaucer's poetry was 
so much better than any that had preceded it that the 
poets who lived in the early part of the fifteenth cen- 
tury made many attempts at imitation. They were not 
very successful. Chaucer wrote, for instance : — 

The bisy larke, messager of day, 
Salueth in hirsong the morwe gray; 
And fiery Phoebus riseth up so brighte 
That al the orient laugheth of the lighte, 
And with his stremes dryeth in the greves 
The silver droppes hangyng on the leves. 

One of Chaucer's imitators wrote : — 

Ther he lay to the larke song 
With notes newe, hegh up in the ayr. 
The glade morowe, rody and right fayr, 
Phebus also casting up his bemes, 
The heghe hylles gilt with his stremes, 
The syluer dewe upon the herbes rounde, 
Ther Tydeus lay upon the grounde. 

The best of these imitators was a king, James I 
James i " of Scotland, who was captured by the. Eng- 
i395°. tland ' ^ sn when ne was a boy of eleven, and was 
1437. kept a prisoner in England for nineteen 
years. During his captivity he fell in love with the 
king's niece, and to her he wrote the tender verses of 



1400-1425] THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY * 53 

The Kings Quair. 1 He describes his loneliness as fol- 
lows : — 

Bewailing in my chamber thus allorte, 

Despeired of all joye and remedye, 
For-tiret of my thought and wo-begone, 

And to the wyndow gan I walk in hye, 
To see the warld and folk that went forbye, 

As for the tyme though I of mirthis fude 

Mycht have no more, to luke it did me gude. 

He catches sight of the princess walking in the garden, 

The fairest or the freschest younge floure 
That ever I sawe, methought, before that houre. 

He gazes at her ; then, 

And in my hede I drew rycht hastily, 

And eft sones I lent it out ageyne, 
And saw hir walk that verray womanly, 

With no wight mo, bot only women tueyne, 
Than gan I studye in myself and seyne, 

Ah ! suete, are ye a warldly creature, 

Or hevinly thing in likeness of nature ? 

So it is that the captive king wrote his love, with a 
frank, admiring imitation of Chaucer, but so simply and 
so naturally that he is more than a name on a printed 
page; and it is really a pleasure to know that the course 
of his love ran smooth, and that he was finally allowed 
to return to his kingdom with the wife whom he had 
chosen. This seven-line stanza was not original with 
him by any means, but because a king had used it, it 
became known as "rhyme royal." 

32. Sir Thomas Malory. This century began and 
ended with royalty, for in its early years King James 
wrote its best poetry, and toward its end Sir Thomas 
Malory — of whom little is known — wrote its best prose, 

1 Book. 



54 * ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1470-1485 



the Morte d 'Arthur \ the old stories of King Arthur 
Morte grown more full, more simple, and more beauti- 
d' Arthur, ful than ever. " Thys noble and Joyous book," 
about 1470. (^ axton ca ii ec j it w hen he put it into print. At 
the close of Arthur's life he bids, according to Malory, 
" Syr Bedwere " to throw the sword Excalibur into the 
lake. Syr Bedwere obeys. Then says the author : — 

He threwe the swerde as farre in to the water as he myght, 
& there cam an arme and an hande aboue the water and mette 
it, & caught it and so shake it thryse and braundysshed, and then 
vanysshed awaye the hande wyth the swerde in the water. . . . 
Than syr Bedwere toke the Kyng vpon his backe and so wente wyth 
hym to that water syde, & whan they were at the water syde euen 
fast by the banke houed a lytyl barge wyth many fayr ladyes in hit, 
& emange hem al was a quene, and al they had blacke hoodes, 
and al they wepte and shryked whan they sawe Kyng Arthur. 
" Now put me in to the barge," sayd the kyng, and so he dyd 
softelye. 

33. The age of arrest. The fifteenth century is 
sometimes called the " age of arrest " because it is not 
No great marked by any great literary work like that of 
literature Chaucer. There are good reasons why no such 
produced. wor k should have been produced. First, the 
greater part of the century was full of warfare. The 
Hundred Years' War did not close until 1453, and there 
was hardly time to sharpen the battle-axes and put new 
strings to the bows before another war far more fierce 
than the first broke out, and did not come to an end 
until 1485. This was the War of the Roses, which was 
fought between the supporters of rival claimants to the 
English throne. Sometimes one side had the advan- 
tage and sometimes the other; and whichever party was 
in power put to death the prominent men of the oppos- 
ing party. Second, there was not only no rest or quiet 
in the kingdom for great literary productions, but at 



1 5th Cent] THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 



55 



least half of the nobles, the people of leisure, were killed 
in the terrible slaughter. Third, the church, which paid 
no taxes, owned so much of the land that the whole 
burden of taxation had to be borne by only a part of the 
people. 

Poor in literature as this century of fighting was, 
there were two reasons why it was good for the " com- 
mon folk." In the first place, knighthood, was Gainofthe 
becoming of less and less value, partly because common 
of the increasing use of gunpowder, but even PMpl0, 
more because the English had at last learned that a 
man encased in armor so heavy that he could hardly 
mount his horse without help was not so valuable a sol- 
dier as a man on foot with a bow or a battle-axe. In 
the second place, war could not be carried on without 
money, and money must come by vote of the House of 
Commons, which represented, however poorly and un- 
fairly, the masses of the people. If the king and his 
counsellors wished to obtain money, they were obliged 
to pay more attention than ever before to the desires of 
the people. 

34. Ballads. It was from the common folk that the 
most interesting literature of the century came, the 
ballads. An age of turmoil and unrest was, as has been 
said, no time for elaborate literary work, but the flashes 
of excitement, the news of a battle lost or a battle won, 
the story of some brave fighter returning from the war, 
— all these inspired short, strong ballads. Of course 
there had been many ballads before then, especially those 
of Robin Hood, but the fifteenth was the special century 
of the ballad, the time when the strong undercurrent of 
this poetry of the people came most conspicuously to 
the surface. No one knows who composed these ballads, 
but the wording shows that many of them came from 



56 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [15th Cent. 



Scotland, and were inspired by the wild forays that 
were continually taking place between the Scotch and 
chevy the English who dwelt near the border line of 
Chase. t jj e tw0 countries. The most famous . of all 
the border ballads is that of Chevy Chase, which be- 
gins : — 

The Perse out of Northomberlonde, 

and a vowe to God mayd he 
That he wold hunte in the mountayns 

off Chyviat within days thre 
In the magger of doughte Dogles, 

and all that ever with him be. 

The marks A ballad is not merely a story told in rhyme ; 
of a ballad, ft nas several distinctive marks : — 

1. It plunges into the tale without a moment's delay. 
There is not a shade of Chaucer's leisurely description. 
Chevy Chase does not even stop to explain who the two 
heroes, Percy and Douglas, may be. 

2. It does something and says something. Every 
word counts in the story. We know from their deeds 
and words what the ballad people think, but " He longed 
strange countries for to see," or he "fell in love with 
Barbara Allen," is about as near a description of their 
thoughts as the ballad ever gives. 

3. It is very definite. If people are bad, they are 
very bad ; and if they are good, they are very good. 
"Alison Gross" is "the ugliest witch in the north 
countrie." The bonny maiden is the fairest flower of 
all England. Colors are bright and strong : — 

O bonnie, bonnie was her mouth 

And cherry were her cheeks ; 
And clear, clear was her yellow hair, 

Whereon the red blude dreeps. 

Comparisons are of the simplest ; the maiden has a milk- 



1 5th Cent.] THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 



57 



white hand, her cheeks are red as a rose, and her eyes 
are blue as the sky. 

4. The metre is almost always 4, 3, 4, 3 ; that is, the 
first and third lines contain four accented syllables, the 
second and fourth contain three. The second and fourth 
lines rhyme, sometimes the first and third also. The 
final syllable often receives an accent even when there 
would be none in prose. 

5. Most of the ballads show the touch of the Celt. 
There are weird stories of the return of ghostly lovers ; 
there are fascinating little gleams of fairyland, of beauty 
and of happiness, but often with a shade of sadness or 
loneliness, the unmistakable mark of the Celtic nature, 
that could turn from smiles to tears in the flashing of a 
moment. # 

O sweetly sang the blackbird 

That sat upon the tree ; 
But sairer grat Lamkin 

When he was condemned to die. 

We do not know who composed the older ballads. 
Indeed, each one seems to have grown up almost like a 
little epic. The gleeman wandered from vil- _ 

r & Composition 

lage to village, singing to groups of listeners, of the 
whose rapt eagerness was his inspiration. He ballads - 
sang his song again and again, each time adding to it or 
taking from it, according to whether his invention or his 
memory was the better. Moreover, there was no pri- 
vate ownership in ballad land. Any ballad was welcome 
to a line or a stanza from any other. Little by little 
the song grew, until finally its form was fixed by the 
coming of the printing-press. 

35. Mystery plays. The fifteenth century was the 
time when the mystery or miracle play was at its best. 
This kind of play originated in the attempts of the clergy 



53 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [15th Cent. 



to teach the people, and was common on the Continent 
long before the coming of the Normans to England. 
There were few books and few who could read. There- 
fore the clergy conceived the idea of acting in the church 
short plays presenting scenes from the Bible. To give 
room for more people to hear, the play was soon per- 
formed on a scaffold in the churchyard. Gradually the 
acting was given up by the priests and fell into the 
hands of the parish clerks ; then into those of the guilds, 




A MYSTERY PLAY AT COVENTRY 
From an old print 



or companies of tradesmen, for long before the fifteenth 
century the men of each craft had formed themselves 
into a guild. Slowly the plays became cycles, 
each cycle following the Bible story from Gen- 
esis to the end of the Gospels, sometimes to the resur- 



1 5th Cent.] 



THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 



59 



rection. Each guild had in charge the presentation of 
one story or more. The acting was no longer in the 
churchyards, but at different convenient stations in the 
town. The stage was a great two-story or three-story 
wagon called a pageant. An important part of the 
scenery was " hell mouth," represented by a pair of 
widely gaping jaws full of smoke and flames, into which 
unrepentant sinners were summarily hurled and from 
which Satan issued to take his part in the drama. The 
plays were always acted in the biblical order. When 
one play was ended, the pageant moved on, leaving the 
place free for the next play, so that a person remaining 
at any one station could see the whole cycle. 

To modern ideas there are some things in these plays 
that seem irreverent ; for instance, the repre- seeming ir- 
sentation of God the Father on the stage. In reverence - 
one of the plays of the creation he is made to say famil- 
iarly : — 

Adam and Eve, this is the place 
That I have graunte you of my grace 

To have your wonnyng 1 in ; 
Erbes, spyce, frute on tree, 
Beastes, fewles, 2 all that ye see, 

Shall bowe to you, more and myn. 3 
This place hight paradyce, 

Here shall your joys begynne, 
And yf that ye be wyse, 

From thys tharr 4 ye never twynne. 5 

Again, when the angels appear to the shepherds to 
sing of peace on earth, one of the shepherds says, ''I 
can sing it as well as he, if you will help;" and he tries 
to imitate the heavenly song. 



1 dwelling. 

3 great and small. 

5 depart. 



2 fowls. 
4 need. 



6o 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [15th Cent. 



The makers of the mystery plays knew as well as the 
writers of homilies that if the attention of the people 
comical was to be retained, there must be amusement 
scenes. as we |j as instruction, and therefore they did 
not hesitate to introduce comical scenes. The antics of 
Satan were made to provide a vast amount of amusement ; 
and even more respectable scriptural characters were 
impressed into the service of making fun to gratify the 
demands of the spectators. After Noah has built his 
ark, he requests his wife to come into it, but she objects. 
Noah ought not to have worked on that ark one hundred 
years before telling her what he was doing, she says ; at 
any rate, she must go home to pack her belongings ; she 
does not believe it will rain long, and if it does, she will 
not be saved without her cousins and her friends. She 
is finally persuaded to enter the ark.. At last the door is 
closed, and Noah might well offer up a prayer of grati- 
tude or sing a hymn of praise for the safety of himself 
and his family ; but, instead, he proceeds to give most 
prosaic directions to his sons to take good care of the 
cattle, and to his daughters-in-law to be sure to feed the 
fowls. 

With all their crudeness, these plays are often gentle 
and sympathetic. Joseph watches over Mary most lov- 
Tendemess ingly. " My daughter," he tenderly calls her. 
of the plays, j^. cruc i nx ion John's words of comfort 
to the sorrowing mother are very touching. " My 
heart is gladder than gladness itself," says Mary Mag- 
dalene at the resurrection. Such were the plays that 
pleased the people; for they were simple, childlike, warm- 
hearted, ready to be amused, satisfied with the rudest 
jesting, and accustomed to treat sacred things with famil- 
iarity, but with no conscious irreverence. Going to a 
mystery play, like going on a pilgrimage, was a religious 



15th Cent.] THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 6l 




A SCENE FROM EVERYMAN 
This is a photograph of the reproduction of the play given by the Ben Greet Company in 
1903. It represents Everyman on his pilgrimage, followed by Beauty, Strength, Dis- 
cretion, and Five Wits. Good Deeds and Knowledge are in the background 



duty ; but the mediaeval mind saw no reason why duty 
and amusement should not be agreeably united. 

36. Miracle plays and moralities. In England these 
plays were more frequently called miracle plays, though 
this name was applied elsewhere only to dramas based 
not upon biblical scenes, but upon legends of saints or 
martyrs. Often one kind of play blended with another; 
for instance, Mary Magdalene introduces scenes from 
the life of Christ, like a mystery ; it follows out the le- 
gends of the heroine, like a miracle ; it also leads to a 
third variety of play, the morality, in that it introduces 
abstract characters, such as Sloth, Gluttony, Wrath, and 
Envy, for in the morality the characters were the virtues 
and vices. What amusement was in them was made by 
the Devil and a new character, the Vice, who played 



62 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [15th Cent. 



tricks on Satan in much the fashion of the clown or fool 
of later days. At first sight, the morality seems dreary 
reading, especially when compared with the liveliness 
and rapid action of the mystery. There is no dreari- 
ness, however, to one who reads between the lines and is 
mindful of how intensely real the story was to those 
who listened to it in the earlier ages. One of 
the best of the moralities is Everyman, which 
was taken from the Dutch. In this play, Death, God's 
messenger, is sent to bid the merry young Everyman to 
make the long journey. Everyman pleads for a respite, 
he offers a bribe, he begs that some one may go with 
him. "Ye, yf ony be so hardy," Death replies. Then 
Everyman in sore distress appeals to Fellowship to 
keep him company. 

For no man that is lyvynge to daye 
I will not go that lothe journaye, 

replies Fellowship. Kindred refuse the petition. Good 
Deeds would go with him, but Everyman's sins have 
so weighed her down that she is too weak to stand. At 
last Knowledge leads him to confession. He does pen- 
ance and starts on his lonely pilgrimage. One by one, 
Beauty, Strength, Honor, Discretion, and his Five Wits 
forsake him. Good Deeds alone stands as his friend, and 
says sturdily with renewed strength, " Fere not, I wyll 
speke for the." Everyman descends fearfully but trust- 
fully into the grave. Knowledge cries, " Nowe hath he 
suffred that we all shall endure;" and the play ends with 
a solemn prayer, — 

And he that hath his accounte hole and sounde, 

Hye in heven he shall be crounde, 
Unto whiche place God brynge us all thyder 
That we may lyve body and soule togyder. 



1476] 



THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 



63 



This is not entertaining, but it is far from being dull. 
With the simple stage setting of four centuries ago, the 
realistic grave, and the ghastly, ashen gray figure of 
Death, it must have thrilled and solemnized the hushed 
listeners as neither play nor sermon could do in later 
generations. 

37. Introduction of printing into England, 1476. 
In the last quarter of the century there were two not- 
able events that were destined to do more for the 
masses of the people than anything that had preceded. 




CAXTON PRESENTED TO EDWARD IV 
Earl Rivers giving the book to the king, while Caxton kneels beside him 



The first of these events was the introduction of print- 
ing into England. Through these centuries of the 
beginning of literature, plays, homilies, poems, and 



6 4 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



[1476 



lengthy books of prose had all been copied by the pen 
on parchment or vellum. Cheap picture books were 
printed on a coarse, heavy paper from wooden blocks, 
and some of these "block books" contained text also; 
but to print with movable types was a German invention 
of the middle of the century. Fortunately for English 
wniiam book lovers, an Englishman named William 
1422T- Caxton, who was then living in Germany, was 
1491. interested in the wonderful new art, and paid 
well for lessons in typesetting and all the other details 
of the trade. He was not only a keen business man, 
who thought money could be made by printing, but he 
was also a man of literary taste and ability, and the first 
The first English book that he printed was a translation 
printed of his own, called The Recuyell of the History es 
iaook U prob- °f Troye. He wrote triumphantly to a friend 
ably 1474. hi s book wa s "not written with pen and 

ink as other books be." This was in 1474. Two years 
later, he and his press came to England, and there he 
printed volume after volume. The Canterbury Tales, 
Malory's Morte a 1 ' Arthur, ^Esop's Fables, and nearly one 
hundred other volumes came from his press. 

In the simple, primitive fashion of the fifteenth cen- 
tury, which ascribed to Satanic agency whatever was 
new or mysterious, there were many people in England 
who looked upon Caxton's magical output of books as 
Decrease unquestionably the work of the devil ; but the 
priced press was still kept busy, and the price of 
books. books became rapidly less. Before Caxton 
began to print, they were enormously expensive. A 
library of twenty or thirty volumes was looked upon as 
a rare collection ; and it was no wonder, for the usual 
rate for copying was a sum equal to-day to nearly fifty 
cents a page. Caxton's most expensive book could be 



1 5th Cent.] THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 65 

purchased for about $30. How amazed he would have 
been if he could have looked forward to 1885 and seen 
one of his earlier and less perfect volumes sold for 
nearly $10,000 ! 

38. Signs of progress. England was not so wildly 
enthusiastic over literature that every tradesman or 
even every noble who 
could command a few 
pounds hastened to 
purchase a book; but 
the mere fact that 
there were 

Effect of 
books for Sale printing on 

at a price Englaad - 
lower than had been 
dreamed of before was 
a hope and an inspira- 
tion. It was easier to 
see books, to borrow 
them, to know about 
them ; and little by 
little the knowledge 
filtered down through 
the various classes of 
people, until that one printing-press at Westminster had 
given new thoughts and new hopes to thousands. 

New thoughts were coming from yet another source. 
Columbus had discovered what was supposed to be 
a shorter way to India ; Vasco da Gama had Foreign 
rounded Africa ; hundreds had gazed with wide- discoveries - 
open eyes upon the ship of the Cabots as it sailed from 
the English wharfs, and had followed the " Grand Ad- 
miral" as he walked about the streets on his return, 
with all the glory of his discoveries about him. No one 




EARLIEST KNOWN REPRESENTATION OF A 
PRINTING-PRESS 



66 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [15th Cent. 



yet suspected that he had landed on the shores of a con- 
tinent, but it was enough to hear the sailors' stories of 
strange plants and animals and people. Who could say 
what other marvels might be discovered ? 

Then came the end of the century. The homes of 
the masses of the people had made small addition of 
comfort ; the noble treated the peasants who 

The people . r 

and the still lived on his land with perhaps small in- 

century. crease f respect ; but for all that, the fifteenth 
century was marked by the increasing importance of the 
common people. They had shown their prowess in 
fighting ; they held more firmly the money-bags of the 
kingdom ; the ballads were theirs ; the mystery plays 
were theirs ; the new art of printing would benefit them 
rather than the wealthy nobles ; the discovery of Amer- 
ica would be to their gain, and it was already a stimulus 
to their intellect and their imagination. The sixteenth 
century was at hand, and men had a right to expect from 
it such a display of universal intellectual ability as Eng- 
land had never known. 

Century XV 

THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 

James I. of Scotland. Mystery plays. 

Sir Thomas Malory. Moralities. 
Ballads. 

SUMMARY 

The poets of the early part of the century tried to imitate 
Chaucer. Of these imitators, King James I of Scotland was 
the best. Toward the end of the century, Sir Thomas Malory 
wrote the best prose, the Morte d 'Arthur. 

Only a small amount of good literature was produced be- 
cause : — 

1. The Hundred Years' War and the Wars of the Roses 
filled the age with fighting. 



1 5th Cent.] 



THE PEOPLE'S CENTURY 



6/ 



2. A large number of the nobles were slain. 

3. The people were heavily taxed. 

The common people gained in power because, first, the use 
of gunpowder made knighthood of decreasing value ; and, sec- 
ondly, the money needed for this warfare could be obtained 
only by vote of the House of Commons. 

From the common folk came the most interesting literature 
of the time, the ballads. They have no introduction ; they 
are definite ; their metre is usually 4, 3, 4, 3 • they generally 
show a Celtic touch. A ballad is often the work of many 
hands. 

The miracle plays were at their best. They were acted 
first by the clergy ; then by members of guilds. They were 
followed by the moralities, of which Everyman is the best 
example. 

Toward the end of the century, there were two notable 
events which aroused and stimulated the people. They 
were : — 

1. The introduction of printing into England by William 
Caxton, followed by a decrease in the price of books and a 
much more general circulation of them. 

2. Foreign discoveries by Columbus, Da Gama, the Cabots, 
and others. 

The distinguishing mark of the age was the increasing im- 
portance of the common people. 



CHAPTER V 



CENTURY XVI 

SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 

39. Revival of learning in Europe. For three hun- 
dred years after the Norman Conquest, English writers 
were inclined to follow French models. Then came 
Chaucer, who, thoroughly English as he was, retold 
Italian stories, and was for some years greatly influenced 
The liter- ^y Italian literature. Italy was looked upon as 
ary position the land of knowledge and light, and it was 
the custom for Englishmen who wished for 
better educational advantages than Oxford or Cam- 
bridge could afford, to go to that country to study in 
some one of the great universities. 

Italian scholars were deeply interested in the writings 
of the Greeks and Romans. For many years they had 
The Re- been collecting ancient manuscripts, and in 
naissance. 14.53 a n event occurred which brought more of 
them to Italy than ever before. This event was the 
capture of Constantinople by the Turks. Constantino- 
ple had been the home of many Greek scholars, who 
now fled to Italy and brought the priceless manuscripts 
with them. Then there was study of the classics in- 
deed. More and more students went from other coun- 
tries to Italy. More and more copies of those manu- 
scripts were carried to different parts of Europe. Among 
the ancient writings was clear, concise prose, so care- 
fully finished that every word seemed to be in its own 



1 6th Cent.] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



6 9 



proper niche ; there were beautiful epics and much 
other poetry ; there were essays, histories, biographies, 
and orations. Printing had come at just the right time 
to spread this new ancient knowledge over the Conti- 
nent and England. All western Europe was aroused. 
People felt a new sense of boldness and freedom. They 
felt as if in the years gone by they had been slow and 
stupid. Now they became daring and fearless in their 
thought. They were eager to learn, to do, to under- 
stand. This movement was so marked that a name was 
given to it, the Renaissance, or new birth, for people 
felt as if a new life had come to them. The Renais- 
sance did not affect all countries alike. In Italy, the 
minds of men turned toward sculpture and painting ; in 
Germany, to a bold investigation of religious teachings ; 
in England, toward religion and literature. 

A second influence that helped to arouse and inspire 
was the increased knowledge of the western increase 
world. Columbus died in 1506, but now that Jj^ ledg0 
the way had been pointed out, one explorer western 
after another crossed the western seas. South continent - 
Amferica was rounded and found to be a vast continent. 
North America was a group of islands, people thought ; 
and men set out boldly to find a channel through them, 
to discover a " Northwest Passage." Finally, Magellan's 
ship went around the world; and, behold, the world 
was much larger than had been supposed. Before the 
wonder of this had faded from the minds of men, there 
came another amazing discovery, for Coperni- Theteach . 
cus declared, " The earth is not the centre of ings of 
the universe ; it is only a satellite of the sun." Copernicus - 
This was not accepted at once as truth, but the mere 
suggestion of it broadened men's thoughts. There was 
good reason why the world should begin to awake. 



70 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1509-1529 



40. Henry VIII and the men about him. The in- 
fluence of the Renaissance was not strongly felt in 
England before the time of Henry VIII, who came to 
the throne in 1 509. Around him centred the literature 
of the early part of the century. Indeed, he himself 
attempted verse more than once. Pastime with Good 
Company is ascribed to him. 

Pastime with good company 
I love, and shall until I die, 
Gruche so will, 1 but none deny, 
So God be pleased, so live will I. 

For my pastance, 2 

Hunt, sing, and dance, 

My heart is sett ; 
All goodly sport 
To my comfort, 

Who shall me let ? 3 

Henry VIII was no great poet, but he liked litera- 
John skei- ture > an ^ he liked to appear as its patron. His 
ton, about early tutor was one of the most prominent 

1460-1529. J 

literary men of the day, the poet John Skelton. 
Skelton says : — 

The honor of Englond I lernyd to spelle 
In dygnite roialle that doth excelle. 

Skelton was a fine classical scholar, and was perfectly 
able to write smooth, easily flowing verses, but he de- 
liberately chose a rough, tumbling, headlong metre. 
He hated Cardinal Wolsey, and of him he wrote : — 

So he dothe vndermynde, 

And suche sleyghtes dothe fynde, 

That the Kynges mynde 

By hym is subuerted, 

And so streatly coarted 



1 grudge whoso will. 



2 pastime. 



3 hinder. 



1480-1535] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



71 



In credensynge his tales, 
That all is but nutshales 
That any other sayth : 
He hath in him suche fayth. 

Little wonder is it that Wolsey cordially returned the 
poet's dislike. 

This harsh, scrambling metre Skelton knew how to 
adapt to more poetical thoughts. His best known poem 
is on " Phyllyp Sparowe," the pet bird of a young school- 
girl. It is of the mistress that he writes : — 

Soft and make no din, 
For now I will begin 
To have in remembrance 
Her goodly dalliance 
And her goodly pastaunce 
So sad and so demure, 
Behaving her so sure, 
With words of pleasure 
She would make to the lure 
And any man convert 
To give her his whole heart. 

Skelton was a witty man, and many of the "good 
stories " of his day were ascribed to him. It influence 
is easy to see how Henry VIII would be in- ofSkelton - 
fluenced even as a child by the careless boldness, poeti- 
cal ability, and rollicking good nature of this man who 
was as brilliant as he was learned. No one knows how 
much of Henry's interest in poetry was due to the 
guidance of his tutor. Elizabeth closely resembled her 
father, and must have been influenced by his love of lit- 
erature. It may be that we owe some generous part of 
the literary glory of the Elizabethan age to the half-for- 
gotten John Skelton with his "jagged" rhymes. 

41. Sir Thomas More, 1480-1535. Another friend 
of Henry VIII was Sir Thomas More. Sir Thomas 



72 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1480-1535 

was so learned that when he was hardly more than a boy 
he could step upon the stage in the midst of a Latin play 
and make up a part for himself ; and he was so witty 
that his improvised jests would set the audience into 
peals of laughter. The year that Henry came to the 
throne More wrote the lives of Edward V and of Rich- 
ard III, and this was the first English historical work 
that was well arranged and written in a dignified style. 
The little book by which he is best known was writ- 
utopia. ten m Latin and had a Greek title, Utopia, or 
1516. "nowhere." This describes a country as More 
thought a country ought to be. In that marvellous land 
everything was valued according to its real worth. Gold 

was less useful than 
iron ; therefore the 
chains of criminals 
were made of gold. 
Kings ruled, not for 
their own glory, but 
for the sake of their 
people. No one was 
idle, and no one was 
overworked. War 
was undertaken only 
for self - defence, or 
to aid other nations 
against invasion. 
This book is interest- 
ing not only because 
it pictures what so 
brilliant a' man as 
Sir Thomas More 
thought a country should be, but because it proves that 
people were thinking with a boldness and freedom that 




SIR THOMAS MORE, 1480-1535 
From Holbein's Court of Henry VIII 



SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



73 



would not be suppressed. In many respects More proved 
to be a true prophet, for some of the laws that he sug- 
gested became long ago a part of the British constitu- 
tion. 

42. Religious questioning. In Utopia every man 
was allowed to follow whatever religion he thought 
right. This question of religion, whether to obey the 
church implicitly or to decide matters of faith for one's 
self, was dividing Germany into two parties, and was 
arousing a vast amount of thought and discussion in 
England. Many held firmly to the old faith ; but many 
others were inclined to investigate the teachings of the 
church, and to wish to compare them with the words of 
the Bible. English had changed greatly since Wyclif's 
day, and an English scholar named William William 
Tyndale was determined that the Bible should J^I?* 1 !" 
be given to the people in the language of their 1536. 
own time. " If God spare my life," he said to a cler- 
gyman who opposed him, "ere many years I will cause 
a boy that driveth the plough shall know more of the 
Scripture than thou* dost." There was "no room" in 
England to make his translation, as he said, and there- 
fore Tyndale went to Germany, and in 1525 Tyndale > s 
printed with the utmost secrecy an English translation 
version of the New Testament. Some English Testament, 
merchants paid for the printing, and the books' 1525 - 
found their way over the country in spite of the king's 
opposition. The Old Testament was afterward trans- 
lated under his direction and partly by himself. 

Not more than two years after Tyndale's New Testa- 
ment was printed, Henry became bent upon securing 
a divorce from his wife, but the pope refused. Then 
Henry declared that he himself was the head of the 
church in England. Parliament was submissive, the 



74 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



[1534 



English clergy were submissive, and in 1534 the Church 
of England separated from the Church of Rome. Who- 
separation ever believed that the authority of the pope 
of England was superior to that of the king was declared 
from a traitor. Prominent men were not suffered 
of Rome. to hold their own opinions in quiet; and among 
1534. those who were dragged forward and com- 
pelled to say under oath whether they accepted Henry 
as the head of their church was Sir Thomas More. He 
was too honorable and truthful to assent to what he 
^ ^ . did not believe ; and Kins; Henry, who had 

Death of / te •> * 

Sir Thomas claimed to feel great admiration and affection 
More " for him, straightway gave the order that he 
should be executed. Tyndale, too, Henry had pursued 
even after his withdrawal to the Continent. Such was 
the treatment that this patron of literature bestowed 
upon two of the three or four best writers of English 
prose that lived during his reign. 

43. Sir Thomas Wyatt, 1503-1542, and Henry 
Howard, Earl of Surrey, about 1517-1547. At 
King Henry's court there were twt> men in whom every 
one who met them was interested. The elder was Sir 
Thomas Wyatt. He was a learned man, he spoke sev- 
eral languages, he was a skilful diplomatist and states- 
man. He was also a man of most charming manners, 
and was exceedingly handsome. The younger was the 
Earl of Surrey. These two men were warm friends, and 
they were both interested in poetry. • Both knew well 
the Greek and Latin and Italian literatures ; and they 
appreciated not only the freedom of thought and fancy 
brought in by the Renaissance, but also the carefulness 
with which the Italian poetry as well as the classical 
was written. Why should not that same carefulness, 
that same love for not only saying a good thing but 



1553-1557] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



75 



saying it in the best way, be followed in English, they 

questioned. They were especially pleased with the Italian 

sonnet, a form of verse that needs the great- 

, . , . The sonnet, 

est care and accuracy of arrangement in its 

rhymes, the number of lines and of accents, the ending 
of the octave, the first eight lines, its connection with 
the sestet, the last six, and the summing up of the 
thought at the end. 1 They brought to England, not the 
glow and brilliancy of the Renaissance, but the realiza- 
tion that literary composition had definite requirements, 
that the thought was not enough, but that the form in 
which the thought was presented was also of importance. 

Surrey introduced another form of verse to the Eng- 
lish, blank verse, or, as the Italians called it, Surrey's 
" free verse." It was in this style that he trans- busied 
lated two books of the sEneid, smoothly and 1553. 
easily, and with a sincere appreciation not only of the 
classical beauty of form, but of the beauty of thought 
and description. 

These two men could not be long among Henry's 
courtiers without feeling both his favor and his disfavor. 
Wyatt was imprisoned on some trivial charge more than 
once, and Surrey was beheaded on a groundless accusa- 
tion of treason. For years their writings were passed 
from one to another in manuscript, for it would have 
been thought great lack of taste and delicacy to allow 
one's poems to be printed '; and not until ten years after 
Surrey's death did they come out in print. The book in 
which they appeared is known as Tottel 's Mis- Tottel , s 
cella7iy, a collection of short poems which was Miscellany, 
published in 1557. This book is interesting, 1557, 
but it is rarely pleasant reading. It has not a touch of 

1 For a sonnet of Sir Philip Sidney's, see page 94. For one of 
Milton's, see page 142. 



76 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [16th Cent. 

humor. The poets wrote of the wretchedness and mu- 
tability of the world. The love-poems were especially 
doleful. The lover complains — " complains" is the 
favorite word — of his lady's absence ; he laments " how 
impossible it is to find quiet " in his love. Yet even on 
so lugubrious a subject as " The lover complains of the 
unkindness of his love," Wyatt is beautiful and grace- 
ful. He writes : — 

My lute, awake ! perform the last 
Labour that thou and I shall waste ; 
And end that I have now begun : 
And when this song is sung and past, 
My lute, be still, for I have done. 

44. Masques and Interludes. While Skelton was 
preparing the way for satire, 
while Tyndale and Sir Thomas 
More were writing excellent 
prose, while Wyatt and Surrey 
were teaching English poets 
not only how to write sonnets 
and blank verse, but also that 
the form of a poem should be 
as carefully watched as the 
outline and coloring of a pic- 
ture, the drama was not for- 
gotten. Mysteries and moral- 
ities still flourished, but these 
were not sufficiently entertain- 
ing for Henry VIII and his 
merry court. Two kinds of 
Masques pl a Y s came into great 
favor, the masques and 
the interludes. Masques were at first only dumb shows, 
or pantomimes. In one of them a mock castle was seen, 




A MASQUER 



16th Cent.] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



77 



from whose windows six ladies in gorgeous raiment 
looked forth. The king and five knights in even more 
brilliant attire appeared and besieged the castle. When 
the ladies could no longer resist, they came down, flung 
open the gates, and joined their besiegers in a merry 
dance. At the close of the dance, each maiden led her 
knight into the castle, which was then drawn swiftly out 
of sight. There is little to tell about a masque ; but 
with the opportunity to display gracefulness and beauty 
and magnificence and skill in the use of arms, there 
must have been enough to see to amuse even the merry 
young king. 

The second kind of entertainment that was enjoyed 
by king and nobles was the interludes which were acted 
between the courses of feasts or at festivals. 

Interludes. 

They are a little like real plays because they 
are in dialogue, and they are a little like moralities 
because they sometimes introduce the Vice and other 
abstract characters. Here the resemblance to the mo- 
rality ends, for they are often full of wild merriment 
and jest. The one best known is The Foure P*s : a very 
Mery Enterlnde of a Palmer, a Par doner y a Potecary, 
and a Pedlar. Each one tells such big stories of what 
he has seen and done that finally the pedlar declares that 
they are all liars, and that he will give the palm to the 
one who can tell the biggest lie. Probably the audience 
listened with roars of laughter as one attempt followed 
another. The dialogue was rough and sometimes coarse, 
but it was easy and natural, and it was preparing the 
way for the graceful wit and the flowing speech of the 
Elizabethan stage. John Heywood was the John Hgy 
author of The Foure P's. Sir Thomas More wood, died 
had introduced him to the king, and he re- 1565, 
mained in the royal favor long after More had been put 



78 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1547 



to death, rising from some humble position in which he 
served his sovereign for eight pence a day to that of 
special provider of amusements for the court. 

45. The first English comedy, Ralph Roister Dois- 
ter, probably 1552 or 1553. Henry VIII died in 
1547, and during the six years that the boy Edward VI 
was on the throne, the first English comedy made its 
appearance. English scholars were still deeply inter- 
ested in the classics, and the comedies of Plautus had 
been played at court many years before. This first Eng- 
lish comedy was written by an English schoolmaster 
and clergyman named Nicholas Udall. He was 

Nicholas t>J 

udaii, died the author of some dignified translations from 
1556 ' the Latin, and his play, Ralph Roister Doister, 
is modelled on the plays of Plautus. The hero, Ralph 
himself, is a conceited simpleton, upon whom Merrygreek, 
a hanger-on, plays tricks without number. Ralph is 
bent upon marrying " a widow worth a thousand pound," 
and here Merrygreek plays his worst prank. A scriv- 
ener has written a love-letter for Ralph, part of which 
reads : — 

Yf ye will be my wife, 
Ye shall be assured for the time of my life, 
I wyll keep you right well : from good raiment and fare 
Ye shall not be kept : but in sorrowe and care 
Ye shall in no wyse liue : at your owne libertie, 
Doe and say what ye lust : ye shall neuer please me 
But when ye are merrie : I will bee all sadde 
When ye are sorie : I wyll be very gladde 
When ye seek your heartes ease : I will be vnkinde 
At no time. In me shall ye muche gentlenesse finde. 

Merrygreek reads this letter to the widow, and changes 
the punctuation so as to give it exactly the opposite 
meaning and arouse the wrath of Dame Custance. It 
hardly seems possible that instead of such labored jest- 



1562] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 79 

ing as this we shall have in less than fifty years the 
light, witty merriment of Shakespeare's Portia ; but the 
days of Queen Elizabeth were at hand, and in that mar- 
vellous time all fhings came to pass. 

46. The first English tragedy, Gorboduc, 1562. In 
1558, Queen Elizabeth came to the throne. There was 
much rejoicing on the part of the nation, and yet not 
all was happiness and harmony in England. The coun- 
try was poor ; it had few if any friends ; Catholics and 
Protestants quarrelled bitterly ; supporters of Elizabeth 
and supporters of Mary Stuart were sometimes almost 
at swords' points. It was fitting that the first signifi- 
cant literary work of Elizabeth's reign should owe its 
origin to a realization of the condition of af- Thomas 
fairs. This work was a drama, the first Eng- ?*!X ville ' 

1536- 

lish tragedy. Its authors were Thomas Sack- 1608. 
ville and Thomas Norton, two young men of the Inner 
Temple. In 1 561, the members of the Inner Temple 
were to have a grand Christmas celebration Thomas 
twelve days long, and these two young men de- j™^' 
termined to write a play to show what disasters 1584. 
might befall a disunited nation. This play was called at 
first Gorbodttc, later Ferrex and Porrex. It was modelled 
upon the work of the Latin author, Seneca, who was 
much read in England, but the plot was based upon 
an old British legend of a kingdom's discord. 

King Gorboduc divides his kingdom between his two 
sons, Porrex and Ferrex. Porrex slays his brother. 
Their mother kills Porrex. The people rise and kill 
both Gorboduc and the queen, and the story ends with 
a long speech on the dangers of such a situation. So 
many horrors are piled upon horrors that the play seems 
like a burlesque ; but it was no burlesque in the days of 
its first appearance. Learned councillors and other great 



80 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1562 

folk of the kingdom listened with the utmost serious- 
ness, and the queen sent a command that it should be 
repeated at court. 

Gorboduc is in several ways quite different from Ralph 
Roister Doister. In the first place, it is connected with 
Difference tne masques in that it has pantomime, for 
between there is a "dumb show" before each act, fore- 
and Ralph shadowing what is to come ; for instance, be- 

Roister f ore division of the kingdom between the 
Doister. 

two sons, the fable is shown of the bundle of 
sticks which could not be broken until they were sep- 
arated. Before the murder of Ferrex, a band of mourn- 
ers clad in black walk solemnly across the stage three 
times. At the end of each act a " Chorus," that is, a 
single actor in a long black robe, appears and moralizes 
on the events of the act. Again, Ralph Roister Doister 
was written in rhyming couplets, while the new tragedy 
was written in the blank verse which Surrey had intro- 
duced from Italy. It was not very agreeable blank 
verse, however, as it came from the pens of the two 
young Templars, for there is a pause at the end of al- 
most every line, and the monotony is somewhat tire- 
some ; for instance : — 

Within one land one single rule is best ; 
Divided reigns do make divided hearts : 
But peace preserves the country and the prince. 

47. Increasing strength of England. One reason 
for the popularity of Gorboduc was that Englishmen 
were beginning to realize more strongly than ever be- 
fore that the country was theirs. The queen loved her 
land arid her subjects, and the people of England were 
quick to feel the new sense of harmony between the 
ruler and the ruled. England became rapidly stronger. 



i6thCent.] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 8l 



Her sea-captains sailed fearlessly into the Arctic and 
Pacific Oceans. More than this, they sailed straight 
into Spanish harbors and burned the merchant vessels 
lying at anchor ; and they lay in wait for Spanish ships 
coming from the New World, captured them, and bore 
their vast treasure of gold and silver back to England. 
There was no enemy to guard against except Spain, and 
even toward Spain England grew more and more fear- 
less. 

All this audacious freedom was reflected in the liter- 
ature of the time, especially in the boldness with which 
English writers attempted anything and every- Literary 
thing. This boldness was something entirely boldness, 
new in religious writings. Every middle-aged man in 
England could remember three religious revolutions, 
three times within the space of less than a quarter of a 
century when men who had not changed their faith to 
agree with that of their sovereign had been in danger of 
death at the stake. Religious poems had been careful 
and timid, but now they became frank and cheerful. 
Great numbers of ballads were written, but few of them 
were as good as the old ones ; for their chief object now 
was to tell of some recent event, that is, to be news- 
papers rather than poems. Of translations there seemed 
no end, translations not only from the Greek and Latin, 
but also from the Italian, for Italy was still the land of 
culture and light. The Celtic love for stories could now 
be satisfied, for there were tales and romances from 
Italy, from the wonder-book of early English history, 
and even from the legends of Spain. The stories told 
by returning sea-captains were not to be scorned, throb- 
bing with life as they were, glowing with pictures of the 
strange new world, and thrilling with wild encounters on 
the sea 



82 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



[!579 



48. The early Elizabethan drama. It was not 

enough to hear stories told. In that age of action, peo- 
ple must see things done ; and the drama flourished 
more and more. Theatres were built, the first in 1576. 
The queen was very fond of the drama, and this in itself 
was a great encouragement, for Elizabeth was England, 
and England was Elizabeth. All kinds of dramas flour- 
ished. The mystery plays were not yet given up ; mo- 
ralities, comedies, tragedies, and all sorts of mongrel 
dramas appeared. The metre employed was in quite as 
uncertain a state ; for these bold writers of plays were 
ready to try everything. Sometimes they imitated the 
blank verse of Gorboduc ; sometimes they followed such 
metreless metre as these lines from Ralph Roister 
Doister : — 

Ye may not speake with a faint heart to distance, 
But with a lusty breast and countenance. 

Sometimes lines of seven accents were tried, sometimes 
lines of five, sometimes of ten, and sometimes there was 
no attempt at metre, but the play was written in prose. 

The years rolled on rapidly. The sixties were past, 
the seventies were nearly gone. In 1 579, the special 
The need need of English literature was form. Both 
of form. prose and poetry needed the finish and care- 
fulness of which Wyatt and Surrey had been the apos- 
tles. In 1579 and 1580, three new writers arose, who 
laid before the lovers of poetry fresh and winning exam- 
ples of what might be accomplished by poetic thought 
united with careful form. These three writers were 
John Lyly, Edmund Spenser, and Sir Philip Sidney. 

49. John Lyly, 1554 9-1606. Hardly anything is 
known of John Lyly before 1579 save that he was a uni- 
versity man and attached to the court. His first book, 



1579] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



83 



Enphnes, that is, "the well endowed by nature," was 
long looked upon as a model for polite conversation, and 
affected the style of writing of all literary Eng- Euphues, 
land for many years. It has a slender thread of 1579 - 
story whereon are hung various moral and educational 
ideas. So far there is nothing unusual in it. Its pecul- 
iarity lay in its style. Lyly uses the balanced sentence 
to excess, stiffens it with alliteration, and loads it down 
with similes, a large proportion of them drawn from a 
half-fabulous natural history. One of his sentences is : — 

If Trauailers in this our age were ... as willing to reap profit 
by their paines as they are to endure perill for their pleasure, they 
would either prefer their own soyle before a strange Land or good 
counsell before their ovvne conceyte. 

Another sentence declares : — 

As the Egle at euery flight looseth a fether, which maketh hir bald 
in hir age : so the trauailer in euery country looseth some fleece, 
which maketh him a beggar in his youth. 

This affected manner of talking and writing fell in 
with the whim of the age, and was soon the height of the 
fashion. Foolish and unnatural as it seems, it Advantages 
brought to English prose precisely what that of euphu- 
prose needed, that is, a plan for each sentence. ism " 
Far too many a writer, not only in King Alfred's time 
but long afterward, had plunged into his sentences with 
the utmost audacity, trusting to luck to bring him out ; 
but whoever wrote in euphuistic fashion was obliged to 
plan his sentences and choose his words. 

Euphuism was only one of the little affectations of 
style that influenced the literature of Elizabethan times. 
Throughout the rest of the century and far into the next 
one poetic disguise after another was welcomed. 

50. Edmund Spenser, 1552-1599. One of the most 
popular of these disguises was the pastoral, wherein the 



8 4 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1579 



characters are spoken of as shepherds and shepherdesses. 

They have the sheep and the crook, but in 
Pastorals. . 

their thought they are anything but simple 

shepherds. The first of these pastorals was written by 
Edmund Spenser, and is called The Shepherd ' s Calendar. 
The shep- Spenser was a London boy, who began to write 
herd's cai- poetry in his school-days, but almost nothing 
dar. 1579. e j ge j g k n0 wn f fc m un i[\ h e wro te this poem. 

Before it was quite completed, he met one of the most 
interesting young men of the age, Sir Philip Sidney, 
and was invited to his home at Penshurst. From the 
first the two young men were very congenial. Tradi- 
tion says they spent day after day under the beech- 
trees, reading the works of the old Greek philosophers 
and talking of poetry. When The Shepherd 's Calendar 
was published, it was dedicated to Sidney, — 

To him that is the president 
Of noblesse and of chevalree. 

The Calendar is a collection of poems, one for each 
month of the year. They are not at all alike. One, of 
course, was' in praise of the queen ; but there were fables, 
satires, and allegory, besides the five poems that pertain 
strictly to country life. For February there is a story 
of a " bragging brere," or briar rose, who takes it upon 
him to scold a grand old oak for being in his way, and 
appeals to the husbandmen to cut it down, for he says 
it is ^ 

Hindering with his shade my lovely light, 
And robbing me of the swete sonnes sight. 

The oak is hewn down ; but .when winter is come, 
the brere, too, meets his death, for now he has not the 
shelter and support of the oak that he scorned. For 
August there is a merry little roundelay-about the meet- 



1579] SHAKESPEARE*S CENTURY 



85 



ing of shepherd "Willie" with shepherdess " Perigot." 
So it is that Spenser describes his heroine : K — 

Well decked in a frocke of gray, 

Hey ho gray is greete, 
And in a kirtle of greene say, 

The greene is for maidens meete. 
A chapelet on her head she wore, 

Hey ho chapelet, 
Of sweete violets therein was store, 

She sweeter than the violet. 
My sheep did leave theyr wonted foode, 

Hey ho seely sheepe, 
And gazed on her, as they were wood, 1 

Woode as he, that did them keepe. 

These poems of Spenser's were so much better than 
any others written since Chaucer's day that The "new 
all the lovers of poetry were interested, and poet -" 
Spenser was often spoken of as the "new poet." He 
was without means, and by in- 
fluence of his friends a govern- 
ment position was obtained 
for him in Ireland. A few 
months before he went on 
board the vessel that was to 
bear him across the Irish Sea, 
he wrote to an old school 
friend to return a little pack- 
age of manuscript which had 
been lent him to read, and 
" whyche I pray you heartily 
send me with al expedition," 
he said. The little package was to return to England 
some ten years later, but much was to happen in the 
literary world before that came to pass. 

1 mad. 




EDMUND SPENSER 
I552-1599 



86 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1580 



In the first place, pastorals became so much the fash- 
ion that there was even a rewriting of old poems, so 
The pastoral that " youths and maidens " might appear as 
fashion. "swains and nymphs" or as " shepherds and 
shepherdesses." Euphues was not a pastoral, but its 
smoothness and careful attention to sound were in full 
accord with this mode of writing. Soon after Spenser 
had gone to Ireland, his friend, Sir Philip Sidney, wrote 
a book that was almost equally smooth. It was written 
merely for amusement and to please the Countess of 
Pembroke, his favorite sister, but for more than three 
hundred years it has pleased almost every one who has 
read it. 

51. Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586. Sir Philip be- 
longed to a noble family ; he received every advantage 
of education and travel ; he was of so singularly sweet 
a nature and so brilliant an intellect that he was loved 
and admired by every one who knew him. Yet he was 
not at all spoiled, he felt only the more eager to prove 
himself worthy of this love and admiration. When only 
twenty-three, he was sent to Prague as the ambassador 
of his country. He was even thought to be a fit candi- 
date for the throne of Poland, but here Queen Elizabeth 
said no. " I will not brook the loss of the jewel of my 
dominions," declared this autocratic sovereign. 

Sir Philip's book was named Arcadia, or as it was 
usually called, The Countess of Pembroke s Arcadia. It 
Arcadia, * s a kind of pastoral romance, wherein young 
written men anc j maidens wander about in a beautiful 

1580-81 

published forest. They fall in love with one another ; 
1590. tne y kirj lions ; they carry on war with the 
Helots of Greece ; they are taken by pirates and have 
encounters with bears ; and all this occurs in a fabulous 
country, a wilderness of faerie. The very story is a 



1580] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



87 



wilderness. There is no especial plot, and the charac- 
ters are not drawn like real men and women. But why 
should they be so drawn ? They are half-enchanted 
wanderers roaming on happily through^ a magical forest. 
Page after page Sid- 
ney wrote, never 
stopping for revi- 
sion, rambling on 
wherever his fancy 
led ; with the loved 
sister beside him 
slipping away each 
leaf, as his pen 
traced the bottom 
line, to see what 
had come next in 
the fascinating tale 
of faerie. Even the 
sound of the words 
is charming. The 
sentences are often 
long, but clear and 
graceful and musi- 
cal. There is more 
than mere pleasant- 
ness of sound in the Arcadia, however, for it is full of 
charming bits of description, and of true and noble 
thoughts. Here is the merry little shepherd boy, " pip- 
ing as though he should never grow old." Here is "a 
place made happy by her treading." Here, too, "They 
laid them down by the murmuring music of certain 
waters." It is but a picture of himself when Sidney 
writes, " They are never alone that are accompanied with 
noble thoughts," and "Keep yourself in heart with joyful- 




SIR PHILIP SIDNEY 
I554-1586 



88 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1590 

ness." One of his friends said long after the author's 
death that Sidney had intended to rewrite his book and 
make it into an English romance with King Arthur for 
its hero; but it is,so graceful and charming in its present 
form that no one could wish to have it made over. 

The Arcadia was handed about in manuscript from 
one friend to another. Wherever it was read, it was 
Themis- praised and imitated, but it was not printed 
ceiianies. till 1 590. Printing was for common folk, not 
for nobles and courtiers ; and the lovers of poetry were 
in the habit of making manuscript books of their favor- 
ite poems. Before the end of the century, however, 
some of these books did come to the printing-press. As 
if to console them for their humiliation, most high- 
sounding titles were given them, and we have The Para- 
dise of Dainty Devices, Brittoris Bower of Delights, The 
Phenixs Nest, England 's Helicon, etc. 

52. Later Elizabethan drama. It was the time of 
the pastoral, but hundreds of sonnets were being written 
and passed about in manuscript. Besides this, the drama 
was almost ready to burst forth w T ith a magnificence of 
which no one could have dreamed who had seen only 
the crude attempts of less than half a century earlier. 
Scores of plays had been written. They were good 
plays, too, wonderfully far in advance of the previous 
attempts. Many of them were, well worth acting, and 
are well worth reading to-day ; even though the writers 
had not yet adopted a standard verse, and had not mas- 
tered the art of making their characters live, that is, of 
making a character show just such changes at the end 
of the play as a human being would show if he had been 
through, such experiences as those delineated. This 
was the greatest lack in these dramas. Their greatest 
beauty lay in the little songs scattered through the 



I579-i6°3] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



89 



scenes. In the Elizabethan days everybody loved music 
and everybody sang. Servants were chosen songs in 
with an ear to their voices, that they might be the dramas, 
able to join in a glee or a catch. The words of the songs 
must be musical ; but the Elizabethans demanded even 
more than this. Poetry was plentiful, and the songs 
must be real poetry. Therefore it was that such dainty 
little things appeared as Apelles" Song: — 

Cupid and my Campaspe played 

At cards for kisses, — Cupid paid ; 

He stakes his quiver, bow and arrows, Song* 8 

His mother's doves and team of sparrows : 

Loses them too ; then down he throws 

The coral of his lip, the rose 

Growing on's cheek (but none knows how); 

With these the crystal of his brow, 

And then the dimple of his chin : 

All these did my Campaspe win. 

At last he set her both his eyes ; 

She won, and Cupid blind did rise. 

O Love, has she done this to thee ? 

What shall, alas ! become of me ? 

This song is in Lyly's play of Alexander and Cam- 
paspe, for the famous euphuist wrote a handful of plays 
which were presented before the queen. He Weedofa 
wrote in prose, but some makers of plays standard 
employed rhyme, some blank verse, and some verse " 
a mingling of all three. There was great need of a stand- 
ard verse suited to the requirements of the drama, a 
line not so short as to suggest doggerel, and not so long 
as to be cumbersome and unwieldy. Blank verse was 
perhaps slowly gaining ground, but before it could be 
generally accepted as the most fitting mode of dramatic 
expression, some writer must use it so skilfully as to 
show its power, its music, and its adaptability. 



90 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1587-1592 



53. Christopher Marlowe, 1564-1593. Such a writer 
was Christopher, or "Kit," Marlowe, one of the " uni- 
versity wits," as one group of playwrights was called, 
because nearly all of them had been connected with one 
or the other of the great universities. He is thought 
to have lived in somewhat Bohemian fashion, but little 
is certainly known of his life save that he took his 
degree at Cambridge. His Tamburlaine was acted in 
1587 or 1588. Five years later, Marlowe died; but in 
those five years he wrote at least three plays, the Jew 
of Malta, the Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, and 
Edward II, which showed what magnificent use could 
be made of blank verse. 

In his prologue to Tamburlaine he promises to lead 
his audience "from jigging veins of rhyming mother 
Tambur- wits," and he keeps his promise nobly. The 
i5^7or Cted Scythian hero, Tamburlaine, is a shepherd who 
1588. becomes the conqueror of sovereigns. One 
scene was the laughing-stock of the time, that in which 
Tamburlaine enters, drawn in his chariot by two captive 
kings with bits in their mouths. Marlowe had no sense 
of humor to keep him from such an absurdity ; his mis- 
Triumph of s * on was *° &* ve ^ ne P oe ^ s some idea of what 
wank might be done with blank verse; and those 
who laughed loudest listened with admiration 
to such lines as these : — 

Our souls, whose faculties can comprehend 
The wondrous architecture of the world, 
And measure every wandering planet's course, 
Still climbing after knowledge infinite, 
And always moving as the restless spheres, 
Will us to wear ourselves, and never rest, 
Until we reach the ripest fruit of all, 
That perfect bliss and sole felicity, 
The sweet fruition of an earthly crown. 



1580-1590] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 91 

Remembering that the speaker is Tamburlaine, the hea- 
then shepherd, to whom a throne is the loftiest glory that 
imagination can reach, there is no bathos in the closing 
line. The only fault is in the use of the word "earthly." 

Marlowe knew well how to use proper names in his 
verse ; and Queen Elizabeth, with her love of music and 
her equal love of the magnificence of the royal estate, 
must have enjoyed : — 

And ride in triumph through Persepolis ? 
Is it not brave to be a king, Techelles ? 
Usumcasene and Theridamas, 
Is it not passing brave to be a king, 
And ride in triumph through Persepolis ? 

Marlowe could write lightly and gracefully, as in his 
" Come live with me and be my love." Then he is 
charming, but it is his power rather than his grace that 
lingers in the mind. More than once there are such 
lines as, — 

Weep not for Mortimer, 
That scorns the world, and, as a traveller, 
Goes to discover countries yet unknown, — 

lines that might well have come from the pen of Shake- 
speare. These are from the closing scene of Edward II> 
Marlowe's last and finest play. 

54. Events from 1580 to 1590. So the years passed 
in England from 1580 to 1590, but one poet, Spenser, 
was shut away from the literary life of his countrymen, 
which was becoming every day more glorious. A castle 
and a vast tract of land in Ireland had been given him, 
and there he dwelt and wrote ; but all the time he felt 
like a prisoner, and he called his Irish home " that waste 
where I was quite forgot." When he came from Ireland 
in 1589 or 1590 to pay a visit to England, he found sev- 
eral changes. Mary Queen of Scots had been beheaded, 



9 2 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1590 



and the most timid Protestant no longer feared revolu- 
tion and a Roman Catholic sovereign. The Spanish 
Armada had been conquered by the bravery of English 
captains and the tempests of the heavens ; England was 
mistress of the seas, and her bold mariners were free to 
go where they would. The thoughts of many were turn- 
ing toward the New World, and Sir Walter Raleigh had 
even attempted to found a colony across the seas. One 
note of sadness mingled with the joy of the nation. Sir 
Death of Philip Sidney was dead, and was mourned by a 
Sir pwiip whole kingdom. The bravery with which he 
met the enemy in the fatal battle of Zutphen, 
the self-forgetful courtesy with which he refused, until 
another should have drunk, the water that would have 
eased his suffering, the gentle patience with which he 
bore the long weeks of agony before the coming of the 
end, — all this touched the English heart as it had never 
before been touched. So enduring was the love which 
he inspired that Fulke Greville, one of his boyhood com- 
panions, who outlived him by twenty-two years, asked 
that on his own tomb might be written, " Servant to 
Queen Elizabeth, Councillor to King James, and Friend 
to Sir Philip Sidney." Sidney requested that his Arcadia 
should be destroyed, but his sister could not bear to 
fulfil such a wish, and in 1590, while Spenser was in 
England, it was printed. 

55. The Faerie Queene. Spenser brought with him 
Books 1- from Ireland the little package that he had car- 
™oks 5 iv- r i e d away, now grown much larger. Sir Wal- 
vi, 1596. ter Raleigh had visited him, and as they sat 
under the alders by the river, Spenser had read aloud the 
first three books of the Faerie Queene, for these were in 
the precious little package. The poem was published in 
1 590. It begins : — 



1590] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



93 



A gentle Knight was pricking on the plaine, 
Ycladd in mightie armes and silver shielde, 
Wherein old dints of deepe woundes did remaine, 
The cruell markes of many a bloody fielde ; 
Yet armes till that time did he never wield : 
His angry steede did chide his foming bitt, 
As much disdayning to the curbe to yield : 
Full iolly knight he seemd, and faire did sitt, 
As one for knightly giusts and fierce encounters fitt. * 

This " gentle knight " represented Holiness, who 
was riding forth into the world to contest with Heresy. 
Spenser planned to write 
twelve books, each of 
which was to celebrate 
the victory of some vir- 
tue over its contrary 
vice. At the end of the 
twelfth book the knights 
were to return to the 
land of Faerie. King 
Arthur was then to re- 
present the embodiment 
of all these virtues, and 
he was to wed the Queen 
of Faerie, who was the 
Glory of God. Together 
with this was a very ma- 
terial allegory, if it may 
be so called, in which 
Elizabeth is the Queen 
of Faerie, Mary of Scot- 
land is Error, etc. So 

far even the double allegory is reasonably clear; but 
as the poem goes on, it wanders away and away, and is 
so mingled with other allegories and changes of char- 




THE RED CROSS KNIGHT 
From the Faerie Queene 



94 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1590-1600 



acters that it is impossible to trace a connected story- 
through even the six books that were written of the 
twelve that Spenser planned. 

Tracing the story is a small matter, however. One 
need not read an imaginative poem with a biographical 
dictionary and a gazetteer. The allegory of the strug- 
gle of evil with good is beautiful ; but one need not 
trouble himself about the allegory. Read the poem 
simply for its exquisite pictures, its wonderfully rich 
and varied imagery, and the ever-changing music of its 
verse, and you will share in some degree the pleasure 
which for three hundred years Spenser has given to all 
true lovers of poetry. 

56. The decade of the sonnet, 1590-1600. From 
1590 to 1600 the sonnet was the prevailing form of the 
lyric. Sonnets were written in sequences, as they were 
called, that is, in groups, each group generally telling 
the story of the author's love for some lady fair who 
was either real or imaginary. Spenser wrote beautiful, 
Astrophei musical sonnets, but Sidney's Astrophel and 
pubifshed' Stella, a sequence which was not published till 
1591. 1 591, gives one such a feeling that it must 
be sincere that to read it seems almost like stealing 
glances at his paper as he wrote. One of his best 
sonnets is : — 

With how sad steps, O Moon, thou climb'st the skies ! 

How silently, and with how wan a face ! 

What, may it be that even in heavenly place 

That busy archer his sharp arrows tries ! 

Sure, if that long-with-love-acquainted eyes 

Can judge of love, thou feel'st a lover's case, 

I read it in thy looks ; the languisht grace, 

To me, that feel the like, thystate descries : 

Then, even of fellowship, O Moon, tell me, 

Is constant love deem'd there but want of wit? 



1594] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



95 



Are beauties there as proud as here they be ? 
Do they above love to be lov'd, and yet 
Those lovers scorn whom that love doth possess? 
Do they call virtue there ungratefulness ? 

57. Richard Hooker, 1554 9-1600. During this 
decade an important piece of prose was written by a 
clergyman named Richard Hooker. He was a man of 
much learning, but so shy that when he was lecturing 
at Oxford he could hardly look his students in the 
face. Even his shyness could not hide his merits, and 
he was appointed to a prominent position in London. 
It was not long, however, before he wrote an earnest 
appeal to the archbishop to give him instead some hum- 
ble village parish. London was full of controversies, 
sometimes very bitter ones, between the Church of 
England and the Puritans. Hooker was far too gentle 
to meet disagreement and discord, but in his later and 
more quiet home he produced a clear, strong book called 
the Ecclesiastical Polity, which defended the Ecciesiasti- 
position of the church, giving the reasons why Bookfi-iv 
he believed it to have the right to claim men's 1594 - 
obedience. Prose in plenty had been written for some 
special purpose, but this was something more than a 
mere putting of words together to express a thought; 
it was not only an argument, it was literature, and even 
those who were not interested in its subject read it 
for the grave harmony of its style and the dignity of its 
phrasing. 

58. William Shakespeare, 1564-1616. It was in 
this same decade that the full glory of the drama was 
to burst forth. In 1564, the year of Marlowe's birth, 
a child was born in the village of Stratford on the river 
Avon who was to become the greatest of poets. His 
father, John Shakespeare, was a well-to-do man, and 



9 6 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1564-1583 



held various offices in the village. This boy, William, 
grew up much as did other boys of the place. He went 
to school, studied Latin and possibly a little Greek. 
Coventry was near, and there mystery plays were per- 
formed. Kenilworth Castle was only fifteen miles away ; 
and when Shakespeare was eleven years old, Queen 
Elizabeth was its guest. No bright boy would let such 
chances go by to see a mystery play or to have a glimpse 
of his country's queen and the entertainments given in 
her honor. In 1568, a company of London actors came 
to Stratford. John Shakespeare as bailiff gave them a 
formal welcome to the village ; and it is probable that 
among the earliest memories of his son were the sound 
of their drums and trumpets, the beating of hoofs, and 
the sight of banners and riders, of gorgeous costumes 
flashing in the sun and gayly caparisoned horses pran- 
cing down the street to the market-place. 

More than a score of times the prancing steeds and 
their riders visited Stratford ; and the country boy, 
living quietly beside the Avon, must have had many 
thoughts of the great world of London that was the 
home of those fascinating cavalcades. He would not 
have been a real boy if he had not determined to see 
that marvellous city before many years should pass. 

Not long after the festivities of Kenilworth, John 
Shakespeare began to be less successful in his business 
affairs. Thirteen or fourteen was not an early age for 
a boy to be taken from school who did not intend to go 
to the university ; and it is probable that the boy Wil- 
liam left school at that age and began to earn his own 
living. For some years from that time the only thing 
known of him is that he often crossed the fields by a 
narrow lane that led to Shottery and the cottage of Anne 
Hathaway, and that before he was nineteen she became 



1 586-1 588] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 97 

his wife. In 1 586, the young man of twenty-two, with no 
trade, with himself and wife and three children to sup- 
port, with only dreams and courage and genius for capi- 




SHAKESPEARE'S BIRTHPLACE AT STRATFORD 



tal, made his way to London, possibly on horseback, but 
more probably on foot. 1586 was the year of Sidney's 
death. There could hardly be a greater inspiration 
toward honor and uprightness for a young man on his first 
visit to London than to see the whole city grieving for 
the death of one but ten years older than himself simply 
because he whom they had lost was pure and true and 
noble. 

Just what Shakespeare did during those first two years 
in London is not known, but he must have been con- 
nected in some way with the theatre and have Shake- 
won the confidence of those in control, for as spearein 
early as 1588 he was trusted to " retouch" at Lond011, 
least one play. This retouching was regarded as per- 



9 8 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE • [1590-1594 



fectly allowable. There was no copyright law, and as 
soon as a play had been printed, any theatre had a right 
to use it, and any author had a right to alter it as he 
chose. Two years later, the unknown young man from 
the country had made a place for himself, and in 1 590, 

Love's La- ^ Q ^ QSLT * n wn ^ cn Spenser brought the first 
tour's Lost, part of the Faerie Queene to London, Shake- 
acted 1590. S p eare ' s merr y little comedy, Love's Labour \y 
Lost, was acted. This play does not reach the heights 
of tragedy, of course, or even of his later comedies, but 
it is freely and lightly drawn; it is full of fun and frolic, 
and fairly sparkles with witty repartee. Shakespeare 
had caught the fashion of euphuism, and he made fun of 
it so merrily that its greatest devotees must have been 
amused. 

Play followed play : comedy, tragedy, history. It was 
no idle life that he led, for the writing of five or six 
plays is generally ascribed to the years 1590-1592 ; and 
it must be remembered, too, that he was actor as well as 
author. It was in 1592 that the dramatist Chettle wrote 
of his excellent acting, and said, moreover, that he had 
heard of his uprightness of dealing and his grace in 
writing. Shakespeare was no longer an unknown actor. 
Venus and He was recognized as a successful playwright, 
Adonis. anc i a j s0 as a poet, for his Venus and Adonis 

1592? 

Lucrece. and Lucrece had won a vast amount of admira- 
1593-94. tion. " The mellifluous and honey-tongued 
Shakespeare," one of the critics called him, and spoke 
with praise of his " sugerd sonnets " that were passed 
about among his friends. 

59. Historical Plays. After some merry, sparkling 
comedies, such as A Midsummer Night's Dream and 
The Comedy of Errors, there came a time when the poet 
seemed fascinated by the history of his own land. In 



1596] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



99 



writing historical drama Shakespeare was never a stu- 
dent-author ; Elizabethan life moved too rapidly for much 
searching of old manuscripts and records. Shakespeare's 
special power as a dramatist of history lay in his sympa- 
thetic imagination by which he understood the men of 
bygone days. He read their motives, he pictured them 
as he could imagine himself to have been in their cir- 
cumstances and with their qualities ; and more than 




WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. 1564-1616 
The Chandos Portrait 



once his interpretation of some historical character, 
opposed as it was to the common belief of his time, has 
been proved by later investigation to be correct. 

Then came the Merchant of Venice and a group of 
comedies, some of which have touches of boisterous 



IOO 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1596-1600 



rant, while some are happy, romantic, and charmingly 
The Mer- graceful. In the Merchant of Venice perhaps 
ventee* quite as much as in any other play, Shake- 
1596? speare shows his power to make us hold a char- 
acter in the balance. Shylock is cruel and miserly, but 
we cannot help seeing with a touch of sympathy that he 
is oppressed and lonely ; Bassanio is a careless young 
spendthrift, but so boyish and so frank that we forget 
to be severe ; Portia is perfectly conscious of the value 
of her wealth and her beauty, but at love's command she 
is ready to drop both lightly into the hands of Bassanio. 

Shakespeare's writing extended over a space of about 
twenty years, half of which time belonged to the six- 
teenth century and half to the seventeenth.* If he had 
died in 1600, we should think of him as a dramatist of 
great skill in writing comedy, whether refined and 
merry or rough and somewhat boisterous, and in writing 
historical plays presenting the history of his own coun- 
try; but, save for some hint that Romeo and Juliet might 
give, we should have no idea of his unrivalled power in 
writing tragedies. Those as well as his deeper come- 
dies belonged to the following century. 

Century XVI 

SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 



John Skelton. 
Sir Thomas More. 
William Tyndale. 
Sir Thomas Wyatt. 
Earl of Surrey. 
Tottef s Miscellany. 
John Hey wood. 
Nicholas Udall. 
Thomas Sackville. 



Thomas Norton. 

John Lyly. 

Edmund Spenser. 

Sir Philip Sidney. 

The Elizabethan Miscellanies. 

Christopher Marlowe. 

Richard Hooker. 

William Shakespeare. 



i6thCent] SHAKESPEARE'S CENTURY 101 
SUMMARY 

The minds of the English people and also their literature 
were strongly affected, first, by the Renaissance ; second, by 
increased knowledge of the western world ; and, third, by the 
discovery that the earth is not the centre of the universe. 

During the reign of Henry VIII, English literature centred 
around him. John Skelton was his tutor ; Sir Thomas More 
one of his courtiers. 

Religious questions were much discussed. William Tyn- 
dale translated- the New Testament. Henry's disagreement 
with the pope led to the separation of the Church of England 
from the Church of Rome. 

About the middle of the century, the courtiers Wyatt and 
Surrey introduced the Italian sonnet and the carefulness of 
Italian poetry. Surrey introduced blank verse. Their poems 
were published in TotteVs Miscellany. 

The drama progressed step by step. Mysteries and moral- 
ities still flourished. Masques and interludes came into favor. 
John Heywood wrote the most successful interludes. The 
first English comedy was Ralph Roister Doister, written by 
Nicholas Udall. The first English tragedy was Gorbodnc, 
written by Sackville and Norton. 

In the reign of Elizabeth the power of England increased ; 
literature manifested greater boldness. Religious writings, 
translations, and stories appeared in great numbers, but the 
glory of the latter half of her reign was the drama. All species 
of drama flourished ; all kinds of metre and also prose were 
employed. The pressing needs were, first, carefulness of 
form ; and, second, an appropriate and generally accepted 
metre. A strong influence in favor of carefulness of form was 
exerted by the Euphnes of Lyly, by The Shepherd's Calendar 
of Spenser, and succeeding pastorals, and by Sidney's Ar- 
cadia and also his sonnets circulated in manuscript. 

The drama now increased rapidly in excellence, but still 
had no standard metre and did not attain to the highest suc- 
cess in the delineation of character. It contained, however, 



102 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [16th Cent. 



beautiful little songs. Finally, Marlowe showed the capabili- 
ties of blank verse, and this became the accepted metre. 

In 1590, the first three books of the Faerie Queenewere pub- 
lished. During the following decade the sonnet flourished. 
Hooker wrote his Ecclesiastical Polity, and the glory of the 
drama burst forth in the works of William Shakespeare, who 
solved the great dramatic problem, how to make the charac- 
ters seem like real people. 



CHAPTER VI 



CENTURY XVII 

PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 

60. Shakespeare in the seventeenth century. In 
1603, Queen Elizabeth died and James of Scotland be- 
came the sovereign of England. The inspiration of the 
age of Elizabeth lingered for some years after her death, 
and the work of Shakespeare, its greatest glory, ex- 
tended far into the reign of James. His genius broad- 
ened and deepened, and he gave to the hew century 
his deeper comedies and a superb group of tragedies, 
Hamlet, King Lear, and others. His plays grow more 
intense, more powerful. Sometimes he uses bitter irony. 
Stern retribution is visited upon both weak and wicked. 
There is a touch of gloom. Magnificent as these dramas 
are, it is good to come away from them to the ripple 
of the sea, to the breeze of the meadow land, to his last 
group of plays, the joyous and beautiful romantic dramas, 
such as the Winter s Tale, Cymbeline, and, last of all, 
it may be, The Tempest, that marvellous production in 
which a child may find a fairytale, a philosopher sugges- 
tion and mystery and that " solemn vision " of life that 
comes in the midst of the wonders of the magic island. 

When Shakespeare's sonnets were written and to 
whom they were written is not known. If the The 
whole aim of their author had been to puzzle sonnets, 
his readers, he could not have succeeded better. Some 
seem to have been written to a man, others to a woman. 



104 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [17th Cent. 

Some are exquisitely beautiful, some are fairly rollicking 
in boyish mischievousness. Some express sincere love, 
some are apparently trying to see how far a roguish 
mock devotion can be concealed by charm of phrase 
and rhythm. Here are such perfect lines as 

Bare, ruin'd choirs, where late the sweet birds sang. 
Here is his honest 

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun, 
Coral is far more red than her lips' red, — 

wherein he makes fun of the poetic rhapsodies of Eliza- 
bethan lovers. Here, too, is his mischievous sonnet, 
which pictures — though in most musical language — a 
woman chasing a hen, while her deserted lover begs her 
to come back and be a mother to him ! These sonnets 
were published without their author's permission, and 
he took no step to explain them. Every student of the 
poet's work has his own interpretation. Which is cor- 
rect, Shakespeare alone could tell us. 

Shakespeare is the world's greatest poet. His genius 
consists, first, in reading men and women better than 

Shake- an Y one e ^ se nas ever rea< ^ tnem > m knowing 
speare's what a person of certain traits would do under 
certain circumstances, and how the scenes 
through which that person passed would affect his char- 
acter; second, in his ability to express that knowledge 
with such perfection of form and such brilliancy of im- 
agination as has never been equalled ; third, in the fact 
that his power both to read and to express was sus- 
tained. The dramatists who preceded him and those 
who worked by his side often had flashes and gleams of 
insight and momentary powers of expression that were 
worthy of him ; but the power to see clearly throughout 
the five acts of a play and to express with equal excel- 



i597-i6n] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



105 



lence and consistency the character of the clown and of 
the king was not theirs. 

William Shakespeare was no supernatural being; he 
was a very human man. Certainly he never thought of 
himself as sitting on a pinnacle manufacturing ghake 
English classics. He threw himself into his speare as 
poetry, but he never forgot that he was writing aman - 
plays for people to act and for people to see. No really 
good work of literature flows from the pen without 
thought. Shakespeare worked very rapidly, but the 
thinking was done at some time, either when he took up 
his pen or beforehand. He was a straightforward busi- 
ness man, who paid his debts and intended that what 
was due to him should be paid. He loved his early 
home and planned, perhaps from the time that he left it, 
to return to Stratford. Money came to him rapidly, 
especially after 1599, when the Globe Theatre was built, 
in which he seems to have owned a generous share. 
Two years earlier he had been able to buy New Place 
in Stratford, and about 161 1 he returned to his native 
town. A vast change it must have been to the man 
whose dramas had won the admiration of the people and 
of their queen, to come to a quiet village now grown so 
puritanical that its council had solemnly decreed that 
the acting of plays within its limits should be regarded 
as an unlawful deed. He was away from his London 
friends and their brilliant meetings at the Mermaid Inn, 
of which one of them, Francis Beaumont, wrote : — 

What things have we seen 
Done at the Mermaid ! heard words that have been 
So nimble and so full of subtle flame, 
As if that everyone from whence they came 
Had meant to put his whole wit in a jest, 
And had resolved to live a fool the rest 
Of his dull life. 



106 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1552-1618 

No word of complaint or of loneliness has come down 
to us. In Stratford were his wife, his two daughters, 
and the little granddaughter, Elizabeth. There are tra- 
ditions of visits from his old friends. He had wealth, 
fame, the home of his choice. In the village of his birth 
the poet died in 1616, and was buried in the church that 
still stands beside the river Avon. 

61. Sir Walter Raleigh, 1552-1618. Wonderful peo- 
ple were those Elizabethans ; for every one seemed to 
be able to do everything. Perhaps the best example of 
the man of universal ability is Sir Walter Raleigh, an 
explorer, a colonizer, the manager of a vast Irish estate, 
a vice-admiral, a captain of the guard, and a courtier 
whose flattery could delight even so well flattered a 
woman as Queen Elizabeth. Moreover, when King 
James imprisoned him under a false charge of treason, 
this soldier and sailor and colonizer became an author 
Raleigh's and produced among other writings a History 

SfwtaM °f the World - He tells the st0I 7 clearly and 
1614. pleasantly. Sometimes he is eloquent, some- 
times poetical ; e. g. he speaks of the Roman Empire as 
a tree standing in the middle of a field. " But after some 
continuance," he says, " it shall begin to lose the beauty 
it had ; the storms of ambition shall beat her great 
boughs and branches one against another ; her leaves 
shall fall off, her limbs wither, and a rabble of barbarous 
nations enter the field and cut her down." 

Several of the literary giants who began their work in 
the days of Queen Elizabeth are counted as of the times 
of James. The greatest of these were the philosopher 
Francis Bacon and the dramatist Ben Jonson. 

62. Francis Bacon, 1561-1626. Francis Bacon seems 
to have been " grown up " from his earliest childhood. 
He was the son of Elizabeth's Lord Keeper, and it is said 



1 561-1597] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



107 



that as a boy his dignity and intelligence delighted her 
Majesty so much that she often questioned him on all 
sorts of subjects to see what he would answer. One day 
when she asked how old he was, he replied with all the 
readiness of an experienced courtier, " I am two years 
younger than your Majesty's happy reign." When he 
was little more than a youth, he declared gravely that he 
had " taken all knowledge " for his province. In most 
young men this would have been an absurd speech, but in 
view of what Bacon actually accomplished it seems hardly 
more than the truth. He was only thirteen when he en- 
tered the university, but during his three years of resi- 
dence, this boy put his finger on the weak spot in the 
teaching and study of the day. The whole aim seemed 
to be, he declared, not to discover new truths, but to go 
over and over the old ones. 

Nothing would have pleased him better than to have 
means enough to live comfortably while he thought and 
wrote, but he had no fortune. " I must think how to 
live," he said, "instead of living only to think." The 
young man of eighteen looked about him, and concluded 
to study law and try to win the patronage of the queen. 
In his legal studies he was so successful that his reason- 
ing and eloquence were equally pleasing ; but the queen's 
patronage was beyond his reach, for she would give him 
only just enough favor to keep him ever hoping for 
more. 

In the midst of his disappointments he wrote ten 
essays, which were published in 1597. They were on 
such subjects as Study, Expense, Followers EssaySi 
and Friends, Reputation, etc., and they seemed 159 7- 
in many respects more like the reflections of a man of 
sixty-three than one of thirty-six. They are so full of 
wisdom, and the wisdom is expressed so clearly and 



108 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1603-162 1 

definitely, that some parts of them seem almost like a 
sequence of proverbs. Among the sentences most quoted 
are these : — 

Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some 
few to be chewed and digested ; that is, some books are to be read 
only in parts ; others to be read, but not curiously ; and some few 
to be, read wholly and with diligence and attention. . . . Reading 
maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact 
man. 

After James came to the throne, Bacon was raised 
from one position to another, until at last he became 
Bacon Lord High Chancellor. He lived with the ut- 
LordHigh m °st magnificence ; he had fame, wealth, rank, 
Chancellor, and the favor of his sovereign. He had also 
enemies, and before three years had passed, a charge 
of accepting bribes was brought against him. He was 
declared guilty ; but his real guilt was far less than that 
of such a deed if done two centuries later ; for the ac- 
ceptance of bribes, or gifts, by men in high legal posi- 
tions was a custom of long standing. No attempt was 
made to show that these gifts had made him decide even 
one cause unjustly. 

Bacon's public life was ended, but it is quite possible 
that the few years which remained to him were his happi- 
est, for, living quietly with his family, he had at last the 
leisure for thought for which he had longed. Sometime 
before this he had published more essays, and he had 
instauratio already begun the great work of his life, the In- 
Magna. stauratio Magna, that is, the "great institution " 
of true philosophy. This undertaking was the outgrowth 
of his boyish criticism of Oxford. He planned that the 
work should give a summary of human knowledge in all 
branches and should point out a system by which advance- 
ment might be made. The philosophers of the day were 



1611-1620] PTJRITANS AND ROYALISTS 



109 



satisfied with words rather than things ; in seeking for 
knowledge of nature, for instance, it seemed to them the 
proper scholastic method, not to study nature herself but 
to reason out what seemed to be a fitting law. Novum 
In Bacon's Novum Organum, or " new instru- Orgaaum. 

> < . 1620 

ment," he taught that in the study of nature, or 
in the study of the action of the human mind, men ought, 
first, to notice how nature and the mind worked, and from 
this knowledge to derive general laws. The former way 
of reasoning was called deductive, i. e., first make the rule 
and then explain the facts by it. Bacon's philosophy was 
inductive, i. e., first collect examples and from them form 
a rule. Inductive reasoning was not original with Bacon 
by any means. His glory lies in his eliminating all inac- 
curate, worthless notions, and in his firm belief that all 
reasoning should lead to advancement of knowledge and 
to practical good. He said, " I have held up a light . . . 
which will be seen centuries after I am dead ; " and he 
was right, for it is according to his system that all pro- 
gress in laws, in commerce, and in science has been 
made. 

63. The " King James version " of the Bible, 1611. 

Bacon wrote in Latin because he believed that, while 
English might pass away, Latin would live forever ; but 
in 161 1, while he was coming to this decision, the Bible 
was again translated, and the translation was so excellent 
and later events made its reading so universal, that this 
one book alone would almost have saved the English lan- 
guage, if there had been any possibility of its being for- 
gotten. This version was the one which is now in gen- 
eral use, the " authorized version," or the "King James 
version," as it is called. Simply as a piece of literature, 
it is of priceless value. The sonorous rhythm of the 
Psalms, the dignified simplicity of the Gospels, the 



1 10 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1573-1597 



splendid imagery of the Revelation, — all these are ex- 
pressed in clear, concise, and often beautiful phrase, 
whose influence on the last three hundred years of 
English literature cannot be too highly esteemed. 

64. Ben Jonson, 1573 9-1637. When Shakespeare 
returned to Stratford he left London full of playwrights. 
Many of them had great talent in some one line. Ford 
and Webster had special power in picturing sorrow and 
suffering ; Beaumont and Fletcher, who worked to- 
gether, constructed their plots with unusual skill and 
wrote most exquisite little songs ; Chapman has many 
graceful, beautiful passages ; Dekker, as Charles Lamb 
said, had " poetry enough for anything : " but there was 
no second Shakespeare. He stood alone, better than 
all others in all respects. The playwright who stood 
nearest to him in greatness was Ben Jonson. He was 
nine years younger than Shakespeare. He was a Lon- 
don boy, and knew little of the simple country life with 
which Shakespeare was so familiar. His stepfather 
taught him his own trade of bricklaying, much to the 
boy's disgust, for he was eager to go on in school. This 
privilege came to him through the kindness of strangers, 
and, as one of his friends said later, he "barrelled up 
a great deal of knowledge." For a while he served as a 
soldier in the Netherlands. All this was before he was 
twenty, for at that age he had found his way to the thea- 
tre and was trying to act. As an actor, he was not a 
great success, but he soon showed that he could suc- 
ceed in that " retouching " of old plays which served 
young writers as a school for the drama. The next 
Every Man thing known of him is that in 1597, when he 
Humour. was twenty-four years of age, he wrote a play 
1597 - called Every Man in His Humour, which was 
presented at the theatre with which Shakespeare was 



1597-1637] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS III 



connected. There is a tradition that Shakespeare was 
much interested in the young writer, that he persuaded 
the managers that 
the play would be 
a success, and that 
he himself took part 
in it. 

This maker of 
plays who had " bar- 
relled up a great 
deal of knowledge " 
was most profoundly 
interested in the clas- 
sic drama. The an- 
cient dramatists be- 
lieved that in every 
play three laws should 
be carefully observed. 
The first was that 
every part of a drama 
should help to develop 

one main story ; this was the unity of plot, and was 
obeyed by Shakespeare as well as Jonson. The Tneuni- 
second was that the time required by the inci- ties " 
dents of a drama should never be longer than a single day ; 
this was the unity of time. The third was that the whole 
action should occur in one place ; this was. the unity of 
place. In the romantic drama, like Shakespeare's plays, 
the characters develop, and the reader sees at Shake . 
the end of a play that they have been changed speare and 
by the experiences that they have met with. In JollSon • 
Jonson's plays, the characters have only one day's life, 
and they are the same at the end as at the beginning. 
Shakespeare's characters seem alive, and we discuss 




BEN JONSON 

1573 ?-i6 3 7 



112 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1597-1637 



them, their deeds, and their motives, as if they were men 
and women of history. We may talk of Jonson's plots, 
but no one thinks of his characters as ever having lived. 
The law of unity of place prevented the writer from 
moving his scene easily and naturally as in real life, and 
this adds to their unrealness. Another respect in which 
the two writers were quite unlike was that Shakespeare 
seems to mingle with his characters and to sympathize 
with every one of them, no matter how unlike they are, 
while Jonson stands a little one side and manufactures 
them ; for instance, both wrote plays whose scenes were 
laid in Rome. Shakespeare shows us the thoughts and 
feelings of his Romans, but he is careless in regard to 
manners and customs ; Jonson is exceedingly accurate 
in all such details, but he forgets to put real people into 
his Roman dress. The result is that, while Shake- 
speare's Romans are men and women like ourselves, 
Jonson's are hardly more than lay figures. Shakespeare 
treats a Roman " like a vera brither ; " Jonson treats 
even his English characters as persons whose faults he 
is free to satirize as much as he chooses. In his first 
comedy he takes the ground that every one has some 
one special " humour," or whim, which is the governing 
power of his life. He names his characters according 
to this theory, and his Kno'well, Cash, Clement, Down- 
right, Wellbred, etc., recall the times of the morality 
plays. 

Why is it, then, that with this unrealness, this lack 
of human interest, such excellence should have been 
jonson's found in the plays of Jonson ? It is because he 
excellence, observed so closely, because he was so learned 
and strong and manly, and especially because his fancy 
was so dainty and beautiful that no one could help being 
charmed by it. He wrote a number of plays. Every 



1610] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 1 13 

one of them is worth reading ; but really to enjoy Jon- 
son, one must read what he wrote when he forgot that 
the faults of his time ought to be reformed, that is, his 
masques, which he composed to please the king ; for 
somehow James discovered that this pedant could for- 
get his pedantry, that this wilful, satirical, overbear- 
ing, social, genial, warm-hearted author of rather chilly 
plays could write most exquisite masques. In Jonson > s 
masques Jonson saw no need of observing the masques, 
unities ; it was all in the land of fancy, and here his 
fancy had free rein. Of course he praised King 
James with the utmost servility ; but to give such 
praise in a masque to be acted before the king was not 
only good policy but it was a custom, and almost as much 
a literary fashion as writing sonnets or pastorals. In 
the masque most elaborate scenery was employed, and 
every device of light and dancing and music. Masque of 
In the Masque of Oberon, for instance, the sat- J^™ 11 " 
yrs "fell suddenly into an antick dance full leu. 
of gesture and swift motion." The crowing of the cock 
was heard, and, as the old stage directions say, " The 
whole palace opened, and the nation of Faies were dis- 
covered, some with instruments, some bearing lights, 
others singing," — and Jonson knew well how to write 
graceful song that was perfectly adapted to TheSad 
these fascinating scenes. He is rarely ten- Shepherd, 
der, but in his Sad Shepherd, an unfinished play, there 
are the exquisite lines : — 

Here she was wont to go, and here, and here ! 
Just where those daisies, pinks, and violets grow ; 
The world may find the spring by following her ; 
For other print her airy steps ne'er left : 
Her treading would not bend a blade of grass, 
Or shake the downy blow-ball from his stalk. 



ii4 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [i 606-1616 



Scattered through Jonson's plays are such beautiful 
bits of poetry as this ; and when we read them, we for- 
give him his Downright and Wellbred and his affection 
for the unities. 

65. The Tribe of Ben. Jonson became Poet Lau- 
reate, the first poet regularly appointed to hold that 
position ; but his courtly honors can hardly have given 
him as much real pleasure as the devotion of the younger 
literary men, the " Tribe of Ben," as they were called, 
who gathered around him with frank admiration and 
liking. 

The romantic plays that most resembled the drama 
of Shakespeare were written in partnership by two men, 
Francis Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher. Hardly 
Beaumont, anything is known of their lives except that 
John" 1616 ' tne y were warm friends and kept bachelor's hall 
Fletcher, together. Beaumont was twenty and Fletcher 

1579-1625. ' , . , . ■ 1 • ■ , 

twenty-seven when their partnership began ; 
and it lasted for ten years, or until the death of Beau- 
mont, after which Fletcher continued alone. Working 
together was a common practice among the dramatists, 
and sometimes we can trace almost with certainty the 
lines of a play written by one man and those written by 
his fellow-worker ; but in the case of Beaumont and 
Fletcher, the closest study has resulted in little more 
than elaborate guesswork. These two come nearest to 
Shakespeare on his own lines, that is, they can read 
men well, and they can put their thoughts into beautiful 
verse ; but in»the third point of Shakespeare's greatness 
they are lacking ; Shakespeare could sustain himself, 
Beaumont and Fletcher often fail. Their characters 
are not always what their natural traits and circum- 
stances should have made them. 

Beaumont died in 16 16, the year of Shakespeare's 



1623-1642] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 115 



death. Seven years later, thirty-six' of Shakespeare's 
plays were collected and published in a book TheF i rst 
which is known as the First Folio. Ben Jonson Folio, 1623. 
wrote the dedication, "To the memory of my beloved 
Master William Shakespeare, and what he hath left us." 
His poem is fairly glowing with love and appreciation 
and admiration for the man who would not observe the 
unities. It is full of such enthusiastic lines as, — ■ 

Soul of the age ! 
The applause, delight, the wonder of our stage ! 

He was not of an age, but for all time. 

While I confess thy writings to be such 

As neither Man nor Muse can praise too much. 

Ben Jonson was not given to singing indiscriminate 
praises, and these words speak volumes for the sturdy 
friendship between the two men who differed so hon- 
estly about what pertained to their art. Stories were 
told many years afterwards of the "wit-combats " which 
had taken place between the two ; of Jonson's solid, 
learned arguments and Shakespeare's inventive, quick- 
witted retorts. It would be worth a whole library full 
of ordinary books to have a verbatim report of only one 
of those merry meetings. 

66. Closing of the theatres, 1642. Ben Jonson 
died in 1635, and only seven years later the drama 
came to an abrupt end by the breaking out of the Civil 
War and the passage of a law closing the theatres. 
Perhaps the coming of the end should not be called 
abrupt, for the glory of the Elizabethan drama Decadence 
had been gradually fading away. Looking back of the 
upon it from the vantage ground of nearly drama ' 
three centuries, it is easy to see that the beginning of 
the downfall was in the work of rugged, honest, obsti- 



Il6 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1642 

nate, and altogether delightful Ben Jon son ; for with 
him the drama first put an attempt to reform society 
before an attempt to picture society, an exaggeration of 
a single trait of a man before a delineation of the whole 
character of the man. Little by little the first inspira- 
tion vanished, and did not leave behind it the ability to 
distinguish good from evil. Beautiful lyrics and worth- 
less doggerel stood side by side. There was a demand 
for "something new." Plots were no longer probable 
or fascinatingly impossible, they were simply improb- 
able. Characters gradually ceased to be interesting. 
Worse than this, they were often unpleasant. The 
court of his Majesty James I. was not marked by an 
exquisite decorum in either speech or manner. Vul- 
garity and coarseness filtered down from the throne to 
the theatres ; it was time that they were closed. 

67. Increasing power of the Puritans. A second 
reason for the decadence of the drama is so intertwined 
with the first that they can hardly be separated, namely, 
the ever-increasing power of the Puritans. Even be- 
fore 161 1, their influence had become so strong that in 
numerous places besides Stratford it was forbidden to 
act plays. Many years earlier, even before Shakespeare 
first went to London, some of the Puritans wrote most 
earnestly against play-acting. One spoke of " Poets, 
Pipers, Plaiers, Jesters, and such-like caterpillars of a 
Commonwealth ; " but he had the grace to except some 
few plays which he thought of better character than the 
rest. One strong reason why the Puritans opposed 
plays at that time was because they were performed on 
Sundays as well as week-days, and people were inclined 
to obey the trumpet of the theatre rather than the bell 
of the church. Sunday acting was given up, and as the 
years passed, not only the Puritans, but those among 



1642-1660] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 1 1 7 



their opponents who looked upon life thoughtfully, be- 
gan to feel that the theatre, with the immorality and in- 
decency of many of the plays then in vogue, Theatrical 
was no place for them. It was abandoned to audiences, 
the thoughtless, to those who cared little for the char- 
acter of a play so long as it amused them, and to those 
who had no dislike for looseness of manners and laxness 
of principles. Such was the audience to whom play- 
wrights had begun to cater. In 1642 came' war between 
the king and the people. In 1649 King Charles was be- 
headed, and until 1660 the Puritan party was in power. 

68. Literature of the conflict. Aside from the work 
of the dramatists, whose business it was to gratify the 
taste of their audiences, what kind of writing would 
naturally be produced in such a time of conflict, when 
so many were becoming more and more thoughtful of 
matters of religious living and when the line between 
the Puritans and the followers of the court was being 
drawn more closely every year ? We should look first 
for a meditative, critical spirit in literature ; then for 
earnestly religious writings, both prose and poetry, from 
both Puritan and Churchman ; and along with these a 
lighter, merrier strain from the courtier writers, not 
necessarily irreligious, but distinctly non-religious. 

69. John Donne, 1573-1631. This is precisely 
what came to pass ; but in this variety of literary pro- 
ductions there was hardly an author who was not influ- 
enced by the writings of a much admired preacher and 
poet named John Donne, the Dean of St. Paul's. His 
life covered the reign of James and two thirds of that of 
Elizabeth, but just when his poems were written is not 
known. They are noted for two qualities. One of 
these was so purely his own that no one could imitate 
it, the power to illuminate his subject with a sudden and 



Il8 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1573-1631 

flashing thought. That is why stray lines of Donne's 
linger in the memory, such as — 

I long to talk with some old lover's ghost, 
Who died before the god of love was born. 

Unfortunately, it was the second quality which was so 
generally imitated. This was, not the flashing out of a 
thought, but the wrapping it up and concealing it so 
that it requires a distinct intellectual effort to find out 
what is meant ; for instance, in the very poem just 
quoted are the lines : — 

But when an even flame two hearts did touch, 
His [Love's] office was indulgently to fit 
Actives to passives ; correspondency 
Only his subject was ; it cannot be 
Love, if I love who loves not me. 

Of course one finally reasons it out that Donne means 
to say love should inspire love, that " I love " and " I 
am loved " should "fit; " but by that time the reader 
is inclined to agree with honest Ben Jonson, who de- 
clared that Donne " for not being understood would per- 
ish." 

Sometimes, again, Donne conceals his thought in so 
complicated, far-fetched a simile that one has to stop 
and reason out its significance. He writes of two souls, 
his own and that of his beloved : — 

If they be two, they are two so 

As stiff twin compasses are two ; 
Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes no show 

To move, but doth if th' other do. 

And though it in the centre sit, 
Yet when the other far doth roam, 

It leans and hearkens after it, 
And grows erect as that comes home. 



1608-1660] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 119 

These " conceits," as they were called, greatly influ- 
enced the poets of the age. There were also two other 
influences, that of Ben Jonson for carefulness 
of form and expression, and that of Spenser, 
still remembered, for beauty and sweetness and richness 
of imagery ; but of these three influences, that of Donne 
was by far the strongest. 

70. John Milton, 1608-1674. Of the poets who 
wrote between 1625 and 1660, John Milton stands for 
the poetry of medita- 
tion. He was born in 
1608, the son of a 
wealthy Londoner. The 
father was anxious that 
his son should devote 
himself to literature ; 
and when he saw how 
perfectly the boy's 
wishes harmonized with 
his own, he left him ab- 
solutely free to follow 
his own will. Less free- 
dom in some respects J° HN milton 
might have been bet- 160 1674 
ter ; for this boy of twelve with weak eyes and frequent 
headaches went to school daily, had also tutors at home, 
and made it his regular practice to study until midnight. 
He entered Cambridge at sixteen, not the ideal book- 
worm by any means, for he was so beautiful that he was 
nicknamed the " Lady of Christ's College." 

While Milton was still a student, he wrote his Hymn 
on the Morning of Christ 's Nativity, a most exquisite 
Christmas poem. The stanzas are perfect wherein his 
learning serves only for adornment and his mind is full 




120 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1629-1638 



of the thought of the Christ Child ; but some of those 
Hymn on toward the end of the poem, which are a little 
theMorning weighed down by his learning, have less charm. 
Nativity. S This poem, one of Milton's earliest as it was, 
1629. hag a kj nc [ of unearthly sweetness of melody 
and clearness of vision. It seems to have come from 
another world ; to have been written in a finer, rarer 
atmosphere. The feeling deepens on reading V Allegro, 
II Penseroso, the masque Comus, and Lycidas, all com- 
posed within six years after Milton left the university 
and while he was devoting himself to music and study at 
his father's country home. He was only twenty-nine 
when the last of these poems was written. The first two, 
whose titles may be translated " The Cheerful Man " and 
" The Thoughtful Man," are descriptions, not of nature, 
but of the way nature affects the poet when he is in dif- 
ferent moods. It is interesting to compare Milton's work 
with that of earlier times. In U Allegro he writes : — 

Mountains on whose barren breast 
The labouring clouds do often rest : 
Meadows trim with daisies pied ; 
Shallow brooks and rivers wide:' 
Towers and battlements it sees 
Bosomed high in tufted trees. 

Surrey loved nature, but this is the way he describes a 
similar scene : — 

The mountains high and how they stand ! 
The valleys and the great main land ! 
The trees, the herbs, the towers strong, 
The castles and the rivers long ! 

Poetry made noble progress in the century 
that lay between the two writers. 

L Allegro and // Penseroso reveal Milton 
himself. L Allegro speaks of jest and laughter 



Poems 
written 
between 
1632 and 
1638. 



1632-1639] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 121 



and dancing and mirth ; but Milton is not made mirthful, 
he is only an onlooker, he is never one of those who 
have — 

Come forth to play 
On a sunshine holyday. 

Shakespeare we admire and love ; Milton we admire. Of 
the other poems, Comus is a masque which was presented 
at Ludlow Castle. Lycidas is an elegy in memory of a 
college friend. It follows the pastoral fashion, and the 
best way to enjoy it is to read it over and over until the 
"flock" and "shepherd" and " swain " no longer seem 
artificial and annoying ; and then come appreciation and 
pleasure. Milton had ever the courage of his convic- 
tions. Even in Comus and Lycidas, a masque and an 
elegy, there are stern lines rebuking the evils of the 
times and the scandals of the church. It was easy to 
see on which side Milton would stand when the struggle 
broke out between the king and the Puritans. 

71. Milton as a pamphleteer. When it was plain that 
war must come, Milton was travelling on the Continent, 
honored and admired wherever he went by the men of 
greatest distinction. He had planned a much longer 
stay ; but " I thought it base to be travelling for amuse- 
ment abroad while my fellow-citizens were striking a 
blow for freedom," he said, and forthwith he set off for 
England. War had not yet broken out, but this earnest 
Puritan began to write pamphlets against the Church of 
England and against the king. In his pamphlets of 
controversy he seizes any weapon that comes to hand ; 
dignified rebuke, a whirlwind of denunciation, bitter 
sarcasm, or sheer insolence and railing, but never humor. 
In his prose he has small regard for form or even for 
the convenience of his readers ; in his Areopagitica, a 
plea for freedom of the press, his sentences are over- 



122 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1639-1651 



powering in their length ; three hundred words is by no 
means an unusual number : and yet, whether his sen- 
tences are long or short, simple or involved, there is 
seldom wanting that same magnificent flow of har- 
mony that is the glory of his poetry. Milton is always 
Milton. 

Among his pamphlets are some that he wrote on di- 
vorce. In the midst of the war, he, the stern Puritan, 
Milton's niarried young Mary Powell, the daughter of 
marriage. an ardent Royalist. After one gloomy month 
she returned to her own more cheerful home, and in the 
two years that passed before she would come back to 
him, he comforted himself by arguing in favor of divorce. 

Charles was executed in 1649, and when Cromwell 
became Lord Protector, Milton was made his Latin sec- 
Miitonas retar y- Milton seems cold and unapproachable, 
Latin but in one weighty act during the years of his 
secretary, secretaryship he comes nearer to us than at 
any other time. The son of the dead King Charles was 
in France, and in his behalf a Latin pamphlet had been 
written by one of the most profound scholars of the time, 
upholding the course of Charles and declaring those who 
brought him to his death to be murderers. The Royal- 
ists were jubilant, for they thought no adequate reply 
could be given. The Puritans who knew John Milton 
best were confident, for they believed that he could con- 
fute the reasoning. It was a work requiring study and 
Defence 01 research as well as skill in argument. Milton 
PeoS> gliSh b e & an ' k ut very soon the question came to him, 
i65i. whether to complete the paper or to save him- 
self from blindness, for he found that his sight was 
rapidly failing. He made his choice and wrote his De- 
fence of the English People. Three years later, sitting 
in total darkness, he wrote, — 



1637-1660] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



123 



What supports me, dost thou ask? 
The conscience, Friend, t' have lost them overplied 
In liberty's defence, my noble task 

72. Milton's sonnets. From 1637 t0 x 66o Milton 

wrote nothing but these stern, earnest pamphlets and 

a few sonnets, one in honor of Cromwell, and on the Late 

one, On the Late Massacre in Piemont, that Massacre in 
' ' Piemont. 

sounds like the fiercest denunciations of a 1655. 
Hebrew prophet. One* sonnet is on his own blindness; 
and here every one must bow in reverence, for, shut 
up in hopeless darkness, he grieves only lest his " one 




PRINTING-OFFICE OF 1619 



talent " is lodged with him useless, and the last line 
fairly glows with a transfigured courage, — 

They also serve who only stand and wait. 

Milton had need of courage, for in 1660 the power of 



124 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1593-1633 



the Puritans was gone. The country was tired of their 
__„. . strict laws, and Charles II, son of the be- 

Milton and 7 

theResto- headed Charles, was brought back in triumph 
to the throne of his fathers. Milton might 
well have been pardoned for feeling that his sacrifices 
were wasted. He was not without consolation, how- 
ever, for in his mind there was an ever brightening 
vision of a glorious work that he hoped to accomplish 
even in his darkness. 

73. The religious poets, Herbert, Crashaw, Vaughan. 
Leaving for a while Milton, the poet of meditation, we 
return to the other writers of the time of contest be- 
tween the king's claim and the people's right ; first, to the 
religious authors, poets, and prose writers. The best 
known work of most of them was done between 1640 and 
1650, save for that of George Herbert, who died in 1633. 

74. George Herbert, 1593-1633. Herbert was born 
of a noble family, and was expected to do honor to it by 
entering court life. At first all things went smoothly. 
He had hardly taken his degree before honors were 
shown him which seemed the first steps to political ad- 
vancement. In a very short time, however, the friends 
died upon whom he had depended for influence with 
King James ; and he suddenly concluded to enter the 
church. His fashion of deciding momentous questions 
with a startling promptness he carried into other mat- 
ters ; for, three days after meeting the young woman 
who won his heart, their marriage took place. Again, 
when a more important position was offered him than 
the one which he held, he refused to accept it ; but 
having yielded to the archbishop's arguments, he ordered 
the proper canonical garments to be made ready on the 
following morning, put them on at once, and was inducted 
before night. 



1633] 



PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



125 



This man of rapid decisions had a sweet face and a 
gentle, courteous manner that won him friends wherever 
he went. He was the 
most modest of men, 
and in his last sickness 
he directed that his po- 
ems should be burned, 
unless the friend to 
whom he entrusted 
them thought they 
would be of advantage 
to " any poor, dejected 
soul." 

The writings were 
printed, and became 
very popular. The 
name of the volume 
was The Temple. It 
contained more than 
one hundred and fifty 
short religious poems. They have not the richness of 
the lyrics of the dramatists, they have not the The Tem- 
learning or the imagination of Milton ; but ple ' 1633, 
they are so sincere, so earnest, and so practical that they 
were loved from the first. Herbert's is an every-day' 
religion ; he is not afraid to speak of simple needs and 
simple duties. In his Elixir, which begins with the 
childlike petition, — 




GEORGE HERBERT 
I 593-1633 



Teach me, my God and King, 
In all things Thee to see, 
And what I do in anything, 
To do it as for Thee, — 



he inserts the homely, helpful stanza, — 



126- ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1646 



A servant with this clause 
Makes drudgery divine : 
Who sweeps a room as for Thy laws, 
Makes that and th' action fine. 

Herbert is full of conceits. After writing a beautiful 
little poem about the blessing of rest being withheld 
from man that for want of it he may be drawn to God, 
he named his poem The Pulley ! He wrote verses in 
the shape of an altar and in the shape of wings ; he 
wrote verses like these : — 

I bless Thee, Lord, because I GROW 
Among the trees, which in a ROW 
To Thee both fruit and order OW. 

But one willingly pardons such whims to the man who 
could write the christianized common sense of The 
Church Porch and the tender, sunlit verses of — 

Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright. 

75. Richard Crashaw, 1615-1650. The names of 
two other religious poets of the time are familiar, Richard 
Crashaw and Henry Vaughan. Crashaw, as well as 
Herbert and Vaughan, was of the Church of England, 
but he afterwards became a Roman Catholic and spent 
steps to the l ast years in Italy. In 1646 he published 
Altar. Steps to the Altar and also Delights of the 
Muses ; the first a book of religious verse, the 
second of secular. 

Crashaw is best remembered by a single line of reli- 
gious verse, the translation of his Latin line in reference 
to Christ's changing of water into wine, — 

The conscious water saw its Lord and blushed, — 
Vidit et erubuit nympha pudice Deum ; 

and also by his lightly written but half-earnest verses, 

Wishes to His {Supposed) Mistress : — 



i6so] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



127 



Whoe'er she be, 

That not impossible she, 

That shall command my heart and me. 

He goes on endowing her with every beauty and every 
virtue. He writes : — 

Her that dares be 

What these lines wish to see : 

I seek no further ; it is she. 

He ought to end here, but he continues for several 
stanzas more. He is somewhat like the writers of seven 
or eight centuries earlier in his way of beginning a poem 
and writing on and on without any very definite plan. 
If some kind critic had only looked over the shoulder of 
this man who was capable of composing such charming 
bits of verse, we might have had from him some rarely 
beautiful poems. 

76. Henry Vaughan, 1621-1695. Crashaw died in 
1650, the year in which Henry Vaughan, the sllexScin 
Silurist, or Welshman, wrote his Silex Scintil- tuians. 
lans, or "sparks from the flintstone." He ex- 1650, 
plains the title in one of his poems : — 

Lord ! thou didst put a soul here. If I must 
Be broken again, for flints will give no fire 
Without a steel, O let thy power cleer 

The gift once more, and grind this flint to dust ! 

The allusion to his being "broken" is explained, by 
the fact that a long illness had turned his mind upon 
heaven rather than upon earth. Eternity was his one 
thought. His poem, The World, begins superbly : — 

I saw eternity the other night, 
Like a great ring of pure and endless light 
All calm as it was bright. 

This is a conceit, to be sure, but it is a glorious one. 



128 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1650 



Vaughan loves nature, and his Bird is as tender as it 
is strong. One might fancy that it was Robert Burns 
himself who speaks : — 

Hither thou com'st. The busie wind all night 
Blew through thy lodging, where thy own warm wing 
Thy pillow was. Many a sullen storm, 
For which coarse man seems much the fitter born, 

Rain'd on thy bed 

And harmless head. 
And now, as fresh and cheerful as the light, 
Thy little heart in early hymns doth sing 
Unto that Providence whose unseen arm 
Curb'd them, and cloath'd thee well and warm. 

Vaughan sees,, what is beautiful in the world and loves 
it ; but all the while he looks through it and beyond it. 
Herbert, whose life and poems were his model, wrote : — 

A man that looks on glass, 
On it may stay his eye ; 
Or if he pleaseth, through it pass, 
And then the heavens espy. 

So it is that Vaughan looks upon nature. Even in his 
lines to a little bird, he says that though the birds of 
light make a land glad, yet there are night birds with 
mournful note, and ends, — 

Brightness and mirth, and love and faith, all flye, 
Till the day-spring breaks forth again from on high. 

All that he writes comes from his own experience. 
There is not a hint of glancing at his audience ; every 
poem sounds as if it had been written for his own eyes 
and for those of no one else. There is somewhat of the 
charm of " Jerusalem the golden " in his — 



My soul, there is a countrie, 
Afar beyond the stars ; 



1 640-1661] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 1 29 



but the poem which has been the most general favor- 
ite is : — 

They all are gone into the world of light, 

And I alone sit ling'ring here ! 
Their very memory is fair and bright, 

And my sad thoughts doth clear. 

77. Writers of religious prose. These three men, 
Herbert, Crashaw, and Vaughan, the Church of Eng- 
land clergyman, the Roman Catholic priest, and the 
Welsh physician, produced the best religious poetry of 
England during the Commonwealth and the troublous 
times preceding the same period. There were also 
three prominent writers of religious prose, Thomas Ful- 
ler, Jeremy Taylor, and Richard Baxter. 

78. Thomas Puller, 1608-1661. Fuller was a clergy- 
man of the Church of England. He was so eloquent 
that his sermons were said to have been preached to 
two audiences, those within the room and those who filled 
the windows and the doors. "Not only full but Fuller," 
the jesters used to say. Fuller published in The Holy 
1640 his Holy and Profane State, which was j^ roiane 
sparkling with bits of wisdom. "She com- 1640. 
mandeth her husband by constantly obeying him," is 
one of his epigrams. His sermons were always inter- 
esting, for he was not only earnest and able, but he was 
quaintness itself. His subjects are a study. One series 
of sermons was on "Joseph's Party-colored Coat." One 
was on "An ill match wel broken off;" and had for 
its text, "Love not the world." 

Fuller's best known book is not religious but his- 
torical, and is the outgrowth of his experience as an 
army chaplain ; for while he was with the king's soldiers, 
he spent his spare time collecting bits of local informa- 
tion about prominent persons. He wandered about 



130 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1650-1662 

among the people, listening for hours at a time to the 
garrulous village gossips for the sake of obtaining some 
one good story, some bit of reminiscence, or an ancient 
doggerel rhyme, as the case might be ; and he put them 
The all into his book, The Worthies of England, or 

worthies of p u n ef ? s Worthies, as it is commonly called. He 

England. 7 J 

1662. describes one man as a "facetious dissenting 
divine," another as a "pious divine;" of another he 
says, "He did first creep, then run, then fly into prefer- 
ment ; or rather preferment did fly upon him without 
his expectation." He says of another man, "He was 
a partial writer," but adds consolingly that he is "buried 
near a good and true historian." He is full of quaint 
antitheses and conceits ; for example, he says that gar- 
dening is "a tapestry in earth," and that tapestry is a 
"gardening in cloth." Of the sister of Lady Jane Grey 
he writes that she wept so much that "though the roses 
in her cheeks looked very wan and pale, it was not for 
want of watering." 

79. Jeremy Taylor, 1613-1667. The second of the 
religious writers, Jeremy Taylor, was the author of Holy 
HoiyLiv- Living and Holy Dying. He was one of the 
Hoiy^yilig cna pl ams °f King Charles, though there was 
1651. ' some hesitation about appointing him because 
of his youth. The young man was equal to the occa- 
sion, however, for he begged the archbishop to pardon 
that fault and promised to mend it if he lived. He 
certainly deserved anything that England could offer 
if the account of his early sermons is at all accurate, 
which says his audience was forced to take him for 
" some young angel, newly descended from the visions 
of glory." 

Jeremy Taylor is always fresh and bright and inter- 
esting. In whatever he says, there is some turn of 



1650] 



PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



thought, some bit of sweetness or gentleness that is un- 
like the work of others. His similes especially are so 
simple and natural that once heard, they cannot be for- 
gotten. He says : — 

I have seen young and unskilful persons sitting in a little boat, 
when every little wave sporting about the sides of the vessel, and 
every motion and dancing of the barge seemed a danger, and made 
them cling fast upon their fellows : and yet all the while they were 
as safe as if they sat under a tree, while a gentle wind shaked the 
leaves into a refreshing and cooling shade. And the unskilful, in- 
experienced Christian shrieks out whenever his vessel shakes . . . 
and yet, all his danger is in himself, none at all from without. 

He loves nature, and he notices all the little things as 
well as the great. In likening the comforting words of 
a true friend to the coming of spring, he says : — 

But so have I seen the sun kiss the frozen earth, which was 
bound up with the images of death and the colder breath of the 
north ; and then the waters break from their enclosures, and melt 
with joy and run in useful channels ; and the flies do rise again 
from their little graves in walls, and dance awhile in the air to tell 
that there is joy within. 

80. Richard Baxter, 1615-1691. The third of these 
writers of religious prose was Richard Baxter. In his 
youth he spent one month at court, but found a cour- 
tier's life unendurable. He became a clergyman of the 
Church of England and finally a thoroughgoing The SaInt , s 
Puritan. He wrote The Saint's Everlasting Everlasting 
Rest ; and he might well turn his mind toward Rest " 1650, 
rest, for he lived in the midst of danger and perse- 
cution. "Methinks," he wrote, "among my books I 
could employ myself in sweet content, and bid the 
world farewell, and pity the rich and great that know 
not this happiness; what then will my happiness in 
heaven be, where my knowledge will be perfect ? " 



132 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1589-1639 

Aside from Baxter's earnestness, his great charm lies in 
his simplicity and directness. Whoever reads the book 
feels as if the author were talking rather than writing, 
and talking directly to him and to no one else. He is 
sincere and powerful, but entirely without embellish- 
ments. He said he never had "leisure for polishing or 
exactness or any ornament." He thought of nothing 
but the good that he might do. When some one praised 
his books, he replied, " I was but a pen, and what praise 
is due to a pen ? " 

81. The " Cavalier Poets." Entirely different from 
these earnest, serious preachers was a merry little 
group of "Cavalier Poets," as they have been called, all, 
save one, closely connected with the court of Charles I. 
In this group were four who were superior to the others 
of their class. They were Thomas Carew, Sir John Suck- 
ling, Richard Lovelace, and Robert Herrick. 

82. Thomas Carew, 1589-1639. Carew was sewer, 
or cup-bearer to King Charles, and was a favorite at 
the court. He would probably have won just as much 
praise from the gay company around him if he had 
written as carelessly as some of them, but that was not 
Carew' s way. His poems are not deep and powerful, 
but they are never careless. He begins with a thought, 
perhaps a very simple one, but he is as careful to express 
it smoothly and gracefully as if it were a whole epic. His 
Ask Me lyrics are his best known work, especially the 
no More. song, Ask Me no Moj'e. Quite different are 
they in tone from those of the " complaining " lovers of 
Totters Miscellany. Carew ventures to write The Lady 
to Her Inconstant Servant ; but in Surrey's poems the 
" servant " never dreamed of being inconstant. Carew 
knows how to appreciate beauty, but agah\ and again 
he turns from a pretty face to the qualities of heart and 



1608-1642] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 1 33 



mind. Perhaps as well known as Ask Me no More are 
the first two stanzas of Disdain Returned: — 

He that loves a rosy cheek, 

Or a coral lip admires, 
Or from star-like eyes doth seek 

Fuel to maintain his fires, 
As old Time makes these decay, 
So his flames must waste away. 

But a smooth and steadfast mind, 

Gentle thoughts and calm desires, 

Hearts, with equal love combined, 
Kindle never-dying fires ; 

Where these are not, I despise 

Lovely cheeks or lips or eyes. 

83. Sir John Suckling, 1608-1642. Sir John Suck- 
ling used to laugh at Carew for being so careful to make 
his poems smooth ,and finished ; for he himself tossed off 
a rhyme as lightly as one blows away a bit of thistle- 
down. Somehow in reading the best of Suckling's 
poems, we can never get away from the feeling that Sir 
John himself is reciting them to us, and we fancy the 
mischievous sparkle of his eyes as he queries, — 

Why so pale and wan, fond lover ? 

Prithee, why so pale ? 
Will, when looking well can't move her, 

Looking ill prevail ? 

Prithee, why so pale ? 

Suckling wrote a gay little letter in rhyme to " Dick," 
who may have been Richard Lovelace, telling him about 
a wedding that he had attended. It is all merry and 
bright, but when he comes to talk about the bride, he 
is fairly bubbling over with fun. 

Her feet beneath her petticoat, 
Like little mice stole in and out, 
As if they fear'd the light : 



134 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1618-1674 



But O she dances such a way ! 
No sun upon an Easter-day 
Is half so fine a sight. 

This gay young courtier, rich, handsome, and talented, 
met with a sad fate. He spent four years wandering 
over the Continent, fought for the king of Sweden, re- 
turned to London, left the court for a time, but hastened 
back to aid the Royalist party. After the final victory 
of the Puritans, he fled from England. In Spain he en- 
dured the most fearful tortures of the Inquisition, but 
finally escaped. All this was before he was thirty-four, 
for in that year of his age he died. 

84. Richard Lovelace, 1618-1658. Richard Love- 
lace had a life equally full of changes. He, like Suck- 
ling, was a court favorite. He too was rich, handsome, 
and talented ; and he too stood firmly by the man 
whom he believed to be his rightful sovereign. For the 
ToAithea king's sa ke he bore imprisonment, and it 

was in prison that he wrote To Altkea, with 
its famous lines, — 

Stone walls do not a prison make, 
Nor iron bars a cage! 

There are two more lines of Lovelace's that are as 
familiar as any proverb, — 

I could not love thee, dear, so much, 
Loved I not honour more. 

The woman whom he loved believed him to be dead, 
and married another man. He was in despair, and he 
cared little what became of him. He threw away his 
fortune, and finally died in the depths of poverty. 

85. Robert Herrick, 1594-1674. The fourth of 
these Cavalier poets, and by far the greatest, was Robert 
Herrick. His life was quite different from that of the 



1648] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 135 

others in that he knew nothing of days at court. He 
had some fourteen years of quiet at Cambridge, and 
then twenty years of greater quiet as minister of a little 
country parish. He wrote more lyrics than any of his 
fellow poets, and a large number of them have that un- 
explainable quality which makes us say, "That is just 
the thought for the place." 

" Robin " was one of the few men who are every inch 
alive. He loved the old Greek dances, but he could 
find amusement in watching his parishioners circle 
around an English Maypole. He wrote a Thanksgiving 
for his little house, his watercress, his fire, his bread, and 
his " beloved beet " as simply and as sincerely as a child. 
Herrick enjoyed everything. 

Where care 
None is, slight things do lightly please, 

he says gayly. He calls upon music, — 

Fall on me like a silent dew, 

Or like those maiden showers, 
Which, by the peep of day, do strew 

A baptism o'er the flowers ; 

but he is equally ready to chat in rhyme about his maid 
" Prewdence," his hen, his cat, his goose, or his dog 
Tracy. 

Herrick wrote two collections of poems, The Hes- 
perides and Noble Numbers. The Hesperides is all aglow 
with sunshine ; it is full of "brooks, of bios- TheHes- 
soms, birds, and bowers," as he says in his ar- perides. 

J 1648. 

gument. Chaucer writes of the springtime 
and of the longing that it gives folk to go on pilgrimage, 
but there is even more of the springtime eagerness to 
go somewhere under the open sky in Herrick's Corinna 's 
Going a-Maying. 



136 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1648 

Get up, get up for shame ! the blooming morn 
Upon her wings presents the god unshorn. 
See how Aurora throws her fair 
Fresh-quilted colours through the air : 
Get up, sweet slug-a-bed, and see 
The dew bespangling herb and tree. 

To " Julia" he writes a crisp little Night Piece, — 

Her eyes the glow-worm lend thee, 
The shooting stars attend thee ; 

And the elves also, 

Whose little eyes glow 
Like the sparks of fire, befriend thee. 

He writes to "Corinna" or " Perilla " or "Anthea," 
but not with the agonies of Elizabethan lovers ; for he 
seems to have no more choice among them than that one 
name will suit his line and another will not. 

His religious poems, Noble Numbers, are somewhat 
different from those of the other writers of religious 
Noble verse. He is no hermit, no recluse. " God is 
Numbers. ver the world, then let us enjoy it," is the 
spirit of his verse. He does not long for the 
mystic joys of martyrdom ; he does not often beg for 
more blessings either spiritual or temporal ; but he is 
grateful for what he has, and does not doubt that good- 
ness and mercy will follow him all the days of his life. 
Even in his Litany there are no agonies of doubt and 
uncertainty. He prays for comfort, and he expects to 
receive it. 

In the hour of my distress, 
When temptations me oppress, 
And when I my sins confess, 
Sweet Spirit, comfort me. 

When the Judgment is reveal'd, 
And that open'd which was seal'd ; 
When to Thee I have appeal'd, 
Sweet Spirit, comfort me % 



PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



137 



There is an unmistakable tone of sincerity in the follow- 
ing lines, one of the first poems in Noble Numbers : — 

Forgive me, God, and blot each line 
Out of my book that is not Thine. 
But if, 'mongst all, thou find'st here one 
Worthy thy benediction ; 
That one of all the rest shall be 
The glory of my work and me. 

One little corner of his writings is so unlike the rest 
of his poems that it might pass for the work of another 
author ; but, save for that, Herrick is the most delight- 
ful, frank, refreshing man that one can imagine, fairly- 
running over with the joy of living and with the cheer- 
fulness that comes from finding great pleasure in small 
pleasures. 

86. Izaak Walton, 1593-1683. One author who will 
not fall into line with the others of his day is Izaak 
Walton. The confusion and troubles of the Civil War 
did not suit him, and he slipped away to the country to 
find peace and quiet. He lived to be ninety years old, 
but not in loneliness, for his friends were always ready 
to go to see this man with his brightness, intelligence, 
and gentle, whimsical humor. He was not without oc- 
cupation in his country home, for there he wrote the 
lives of several famous men of his time, Donne and Her- 
bert among them. These Lives are so tender and sin- 
cere that they seem to be simple talks about friends who 
were dear to him, an ideal mode of writing biographies. 
Best of his works, however, is The Compleat TheCom . 
Angler. In one way it is a wise little treatise pleat An- 
on the different kinds of fish and the best gler " 1653 ' 
modes of catching them ; but its charm lies not in infor- 
mation about hooks and bait but in Walton's genuine 
love of the country and in the quaintness of his thoughts. 



138 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1660 



He treats fishing with gravity, whether mock or real it 
is sometimes hard to tell. " Angling is somewhat like 
poetry," he declares learnedly, " men are to be born so ; " 
and he gives as the epitaph of a friend, "An excellent 
angler, and now with God." " Look about you," he 
says, " and see how pleasantly that meadow looks ; nay, 
and the earth smells so sweetly too : Come let me tell 
you what holy Mr. Herbert says of such days and flow- 
ers as these, and then we will thank God that we enjoy 
them," — and he recites, — 

Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright. 

It is no marvel that his old friends never forsook the man 
who could chat so simply and delightfully. He is espe- 
cially charming when he talks of music, whether it be 
the " smooth song which was made by Kit Marlow " or 
the inimitable melody of the nightingale. Of the latter 
he writes : — 

But the nightingale, another of my airy creatures, breathes such 
sweet loud music out of her little instrumental throat, that it might 
make mankind to think miracles were not ceased. He that at mid- 
night, when the very labourer sleeps securely, should hear, as I have 
very often, the clear airs, the sweet descants, the natural rising and 
falling, the doubling and redoubling of her voice, might well be 
lifted above earth, and say, " Lord, what musick hast thou provided 
for the Saints in Heaven, when thou affordest bad men such mu- 
sick on Earth ! " 

87. The Restoration, 1660. The year 1660 found Eng- 
land tired of Puritan control. Across the Channel was the 
son of Charles I., and he was invited to return and rule 
the land, as has been said. Unfortunately, he could not 
even rule himself, and his idea of being king was simply 
to have plenty of money and amusement. At first the 
nation could hardly help sympathizing with him and his 
merry Cavalier friends ; for the last years had been dull 



PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



139 



and gloomy. After the supreme power fell into the 
hands of the Puritans, they suppressed as far as possible 
all public amusements, and they made no distinction be- 
tween the brutalities of bull-baiting and the simple dan- 
cing around a Maypole which had so entertained Herrick. 
Much of this unreasonable strictness was due to men who 
were not really Puritans at heart, but who had joined the 
ruling party for the sake of power ; and these men went 
beyond the others in severity in order to make themselves 
appear zealous converts. 

88. Samuel Butler, 1612-1680. It is possible that 
some of these turncoats had a sly relish of a book which 
came out in 1662 and which threw the merry monarch 
and his court into gales of laughter. Its name Hudibras. 
was Hudibras, and it was written by one Sam- 1662, 
uel Butler. Among the few facts known of his life is 
that he was for some time a member of the household of 
a Puritan colonel. The gentleman never guessed that a 
caricature of himself was to be the laughing-stock of the 
son of the king whom his party had beheaded. This Puri- 
tan becomes in Butler's hands a knight who sets out with 
his squire, quite in the mediaeval fashion, to range the 
country through and correct abuses. Thus is Sir Hudi- 
bras described : — 

For he was of that stubborn crew 

Of errant saints, whom all men grant 

To be the true Church Militant: 

Such as do build their faith upon 

The holy text of pike and gun ; 

Decide all controversies by 

Infallible artillery, 

And prove their doctrine orthodox, 

By Apostolic blows and knocks. 

There was much comfort in this satire for the men who 
had been beaten by the " infallible artillery." 



140 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1660-1667 

Nobody cares much to-day which side Butler made 
fun of. We value Hudibras for its amusing similes, its 
real wisdom, and its witty couplets, such as : — 

The sun had long since in the lap 
Of Thetis taken out his nap, 
And, like a lobster boiled, the morn 
From black to red began to turn. 

Great conquerors greater glory gain 
By foes in triumph led than slain. 

He that complies against his will 
Is of his own opinion still. 

Butler is said to have expected a reward from the king 
and to have been disappointed. This was quite in the 
style of Charles II, whose gratitude was reserved for 
the favors which he hoped to receive. 

89. Milton's later years. The only gratitude that 
can be felt toward Charles himself is for his negative 
goodness in not persecuting to the death John Milton, 
a man who had been so prominent during the Common- 
wealth and who had written the Defence of the English 
People. t The poet was left to spend his later years in 
peace ; and then it was that his mind turned toward a 
plan of his youth that had long been laid aside for the 
time of quiet that he hoped would come. He wished to 
write some long poem on a subject that was worthy of 
his ability. Just what that subject should be was not 
easy to decide. He thought of taking King Arthur for 
a hero and writing a British epic ; but his plan broadened 
until he determined to write — 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat. 



1 667] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 141 



These are the first lines of Paradise Lost. The poem 
is based upon Rev. xii. 7-9, the third chapter of Genesis, 
and other passages in the Bible. Satan rebels Paradlse 
against God and with his angels is cast out of Lost 1667 - 
heaven into the flames of hell. While they lie in chains, 
the world is created, and man is given the Garden of 
Eden for his home. Satan rouses his angels to revenge 
themselves by tempting man. He himself makes his 
way to Eden and persuades Eve to disobey the command 
of God. Adam joins her in the sin, and both are driven 
from Eden ; but a vision is granted to show that man 
shall one day find redemption. 

To treat so lofty a theme in such manner that the 
treatment shall not by contrast appear trivial and un- 
worthy is a rare triumph. Milton has succeeded so far 
as success is possible. His imagination does not fail ; 
his poetic expression is ever suited to his thought ; the 
mere sound of his phrases is a wonderful organ music, 
for Milton is master of all the beauties and intricacies 
of poetic harmony. Short extracts give no idea of the 
majesty of the poem, though there are .scores of lines 
that have become familiar in every-day speech. 

The mind is its own place, and in itself 
Can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven. 

Not to know me argues yourselves unknown. 

The world was all before them, where to. choose. 

Milton ever suits the word to the thought. To express 
harshness of sound he says : — 

On a sudden open fly, 
With impetuous recoil and jarring sound, 
Th' infernal doors, and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder. 



142 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1671 



There is the very hush of evening in the lines, — 

Then silent night 
With this her solemn bird and this fair moon. 

Here is gliding smoothness : — 

Liquid lapse of murmuring streams. 

Milton had thought that the vision shown to Adam 
of the final redemption of man was all-sufficient ; but a 
Quaker friend who had read the manuscript said to him, 
"Thou hast said much of Paradise lost, but what hast 
Paradise t ^ 10u to sa y to P ara dise found ? " This simple 
Regained, question inspired Milton's second long poem, 
1671. Paradise Regained, which he — and he only — 
preferred to the first. After this he wrote Samson 
Samson Agonistes, a tragedy which conforms in every 
Agonistes. way to the rules of the Greek drama. These 

1671* 

poems were dictated in his blindness. One 
sonnet, written during those years of darkness, explains 
the power by which he endured so crushing a misfor- 
tune : — 

When I consider how my light is spent 

Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, . 
And that one talent which is death to hide, 
Lodg'd with me useless, though my soul more bent 

To serve therewith my Maker, and present 
My true account, lest he returning chide ; 
" Doth God exact day-labour, light denied ? " 
I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent 

That murmur, soon replies, " God doth not need 
Either man's work, or his own gifts ; who best 
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best : his state 

Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed, 

And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; 
They also serve who only stand and wait." 

A child may find pleasure in the musical sound of Para- 
dise Lost, but the fullest enjoyment and appreciation of 



1628-1688] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 143 



the poem require familiarity not only with the Bible, but 
with classical literature. Four years after Milton's death 
a book came out which to children is a fascinating story 
and to the learned a marvellously perfect allegory, while 
to thousands of humble seekers after the way in which 
they should walk it has been a guide and an inspiration. 
This book is The Pilgrim's Progress. 

90. John Bunyan, 1628-1688. It was written by 
John Bunyan, a man whose life was in many ways the 
opposite of Milton's, for 
he was poor and almost 
without even the simplest 
beginnings of education. 
There is small reason for 
thinking that Milton ever 
looked upon himself as in 
any respect a wrongdoer ; 
but the rude village lad = 
suffered for two years ago- 
nies of remorse for what he 
feared was the unpardona- 
ble wickedness of his boy- JO " N BUN J AN 

j 1628-1688 
hood. At last the light 

burst upon him. He believed that the sins of his youth 
had found forgiveness, and he had but one desire, to 
preach forgiveness to every one whom he could reach. 
His trade was that of a tinker, and as he went from 
place to place, he preached wherever any one would 
listen. There was little trouble in gathering audiences 
together ; for the untaught villager began to show a 
vividness of speech, a rude eloquence, which held his 
hearers as if they were spellbound. 

Those were not days when a man might preach what 
he would. Charles II looked upon all dissenters as 




144 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1678 



opposed to him. Bunyan had become a dissenter, and 
Perse- it did not occur to him to conceal his faith or 
cution. even to preach with less boldness. He was 
promptly arrested and thrown into jail. " Will you pro- 
mise to do no more preaching if you are set free ? " the 
king's officers asked. Outside the jail were his wife and 
two little daughters, one of them especially dear to him 
because of her blindness ; but Bunyan refused to make 
the promise. For twelve years he was a prisoner in 
Bedford Jail, doing whatever work he could get to sup- 
port his family. At the end of that time he was free 
for a while, then came a second imprisonment. It was 
ThePii- within the walls of the jail that he wrote The 
Progress Pilgrim s Progress, the most perfect allegory 
1678. ever produced. In this story, or " dream," 
Christian — no glittering knight, but a plain, every-day 
citizen — flees from the City of Destruction in quest 
of the Celestial City. He has many troubles ; he falls 
into the Slough of Despond ; he has to go by roaring 
lions ; he encounters Apollyon ; he passes through 
the Valley of Humiliation ; he is beaten and perse- 
cuted at Vanity Fair ; he wanders out of the way and 
falls into the hands of Giant Despair of Doubting Cas- 
tle ; and he goes tremblingly through the Valley of 
the Shadow of Death. But his way is not all gloom. 
He finds friendly entertainment and counsel at the 
House of the Interpreter ; at the house built by the 
Lord of the Hill he rests " in a large upper chamber, 
whose window opened toward the sunrising, the name 
of the chamber was Peace ; " he is shown far away the 
beauties of the Delectable Mountains, which are in 
Emmanuel's Land ; the key of promise opens the way 
out of Doubting Castle. At last he and his friends 
stand beside the River of Death, which alone lies be- 



1678] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 145 



tween them and the Celestial City ; and when they have 
passed through the flood, behold two Shining Ones are 
beside them to help them up the hill to the City whose 
foundation is higher than the clouds. A heavenly host 
comes out to meet them and gives them ten thousand 
welcomes. " Call at the gate," bid the Shining Ones, 
and the King commands that it shall be opened unto 
them. They go in, and all the bells of the City ring for 
joy. The dreamer looked in after them and he says, "The 
City shone like the sun ; the streets also were paved 
with gold, and in them walked many men with crowns 
on their heads, palms in their hands, and golden harps 
to sing praises withal. . . . And after that they shut up 
the gates,; which, when I had seen, I wished myself 
among them." 

The Pilgrim s Progress is a wonderful book. It is 
the result of a thorough knowledge of the Bible, sincere 
religious feeling, and a glowing imagination that made 
real and tangible whatever thought it touched. No 
other writer could safely venture to name his characters 
Faithful or Pliable or Ignorance ; but Bunyan makes 
these abstractions real. Faithful has other qualities 
than faithfulness, and he talks with Christian not like a 
shadow, but like a real human being. When Christian 
fights with Apollyon, there is no strife of phantoms, but 
a veritable contest, wherein Apollyon gave him a fall 
and would have pressed him to death had not Christian 
by good fortune succeeded in catching his sword and 
giving him a deadly thrust. The English of the book 
is pure and strong ; but its great power lies neither in 
its English nor in the perfection of the allegory, but in 
the fact that in picturing his own religious struggles, 
Bunyan pictured those of many another man. " Look 
in thy heart and write," said Philip Sidney. One hun- 



146 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1660 



dred years later, the unlettered tinker in Bedford Jail 
obeyed unconsciously the behest of the heir of the rich- 
est culture that England could give, and sent forth a 
masterpiece. Bunyan wrote several other books, all of 
value, but none equal to The Pilgrim s Progress. After 
his release from prison and to the end of his life he 
devoted himself to the preaching that he loved. 

91. John Dryden, 1631-1700. Neither Bunyan nor 
Milton wrote with any thought of pleasing the age in 
which he lived. Bunyan says explicitly, — 

Nor did I undertake 
Thereby to please my neighbor; no, not I. 
I did it mine own self to gratify. 

Milton surely had no preference of his own age in mind 
when he spent his last years on a work which he had 
little reason to think would find many readers among 
his contemporaries. The most important writer of the 
closing years of the century was their opposite in this 
respect. His name was John Dryden. He was born 
in 163 1, of a Puritan family. Up to 1660, he wrote 
nothing that attracted any attention except a eulogy of 
Cromwell, but in that year he produced a glowing wel- 
come to Charles II, wherein he declared that — 

For his long absence Church and State did groan. 

We owe much to Dryden, but his name would be even 
greater if he had not deliberately made up his mind to 
please the age in which he lived, and which, unfortunately, 
was an age of neither good morals nor good manners. 
The theatres, closed in 1642, were now flung open, and 
The drama tnere was a ca ^ f° r plays. Many were written, 
of the but they were of quite different character from 
the plays of the sixteenth century. The Shake- 
spearian inspiration had vanished, and the French de- 



i66 7 ] 



PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



147 



sire for polish and carefulness of form now held sway. 
If the hero of a play was in circumstances that would 
naturally arouse deep feeling, the writer was expected 
to polish every phrase, 
but whether the speech 
sounded sincere was a 
matter of small moment. 
Indeed, it was regarded as 
in much better taste to re- 
press all genuine emotion. 
This was enough to make 
a play cold and unreal ; but 
another popular demand 
was still more destructive 
of a really great dramatic 
period, namely, that the 
plays should imitate the 
indecent manners of the 
court. A successful play, 
then, was required to be 
polished in form, gay and 
witty, but cold, and often vulgar and profane, 
yielded to this demand, especially in his comedies, but 
he was otherwise honest in his work, for he wrote care- 
fully and thoughtfully. No other dramatic poet of the 
age was his equal ; and, indeed, about whatever he wrote 
there was a certain strength and power that won atten- 
tion and respect. 

Dryden was careful to choose popular themes. He 
wrote a poem on the events of the year 1667, namely, 
the Great Fire of London, the Plague, and the „ M , 

' b ' Dryden' s 

War with the Dutch ; not poetical subjects by choice of 
any means, but subjects in which every one was sul)Jects - 
interested and which afforded good opportunity for lines 




JOHN DRYDEN 
1631-1700 



Dryden 



148 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1681-1682 



that would win applause, such as the following, which 
says that the English seaman — 

Adds his heart to every gun he fires. 

Life began to move easily and pleasantly with Dry- 
den. He was favored by the king; his company was 
sought by men of rank, he was comfortable financially. 
His next step was to write satire. The country was 
full of plot and intrigue. Whoever wished to stand well 
with the king and his party must do his best to support 
them. Then it was that Dryden wrote his most famous 
Absalom satire, Absalom and Achitophel. In this there 
tophei? M " * s a kind of character-reading that is quite dif- 

1681. ferent from Shakespeare's. Shakespeare was 
interested in all kinds of people and understood them 
because he sympathized with them. Dryden's aim in 
his satire was not to understand and sympathize, but to 
pick out the weakest points of his victims, to sting and 
to hurt. One man he described as — 

Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong, 
Was everything by starts and nothing long, 
But in the course of one revolving moon 
Was chymist, fiddler, statesman, and buffoon. 

Dryden was ready to undertake any kind of literary 
work that was demanded by the times, and in the midst 
Reiigio f his sa tires he wrote the Religio Laid, or 

Laici. . p 

1682. "religion of a layman," and here he deserves 
honest praise. This poem is an argument in favor 
of the Church of England. To express difficult argu- 
ments in verse is not easy, but Dryden has suc- 
ceeded. His poem is clear and natural in its wording, 
smooth, dignified, and easy to read. 

Shall I speak plain, and in a nation free 
Assume an honest layman's liberty ? 



1667-1697] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



149 



I think, according to my little skill, • 
To my own mother Church submitting still, 
That many have been saved, and many may, 
Who never heard this question brought in play. 
The unlettered Christian, who believes in gross, 
Plods on to Heaven and ne'er is at a loss ; 
For the strait gate would be made straiter yet, 
Were none admitted there but men of wit. 

Only a few years later Dryden became a member 
of the Roman Catholic Church and wrote The Hind 
and the Panther, wherein the milk-white hind The Hind 
represents the Church of Rome ; the panther, SJtSlr. * 
beautiful but spotted, the church he had aban- 168 ?- 
doned. Dryden could write witty lines, but his sense 
of humor was not strong enough to save him from the 
absurdity of setting two of the beasts of the field into 
theological argument. Still, here were the same excel- 
lencies as in the Religio Laici, the same grace and 
vigor. The poem deserved applause and won it. 

Dryden translated the ^Eneid and other Translation 
works. He wrote two beautiful odes for St. Aeneid, 
Cecilia's Day. In the second, known as Alex- \f 97 '' , 

t J ' Alexander's 

ander s Feast, are many lines of the sort that Feast, 1697. 
stay in the memory, such as : — 

None but the brave deserves the fair. 

Sweet is pleasure after pain. f^ 116 .?* 
r ^ St. Cecilia's 

War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; Day. 1687. 

Honour but an empty bubble. 

Dryden's prose is of great value because of its clear, 
bracing style and general excellence. He Essay of 
wrote much criticism, not only in his Essay pj^ 110 
of Dramatic Poesy, but in the prefaces to his 1667 - 
various plays ; and criticism, aside from stray paragraphs, 
was something new in English literature. His sen- 



i5d 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



[1700 



tences have no! the majestic sonorousness of Milton's, 
but every phrase has its work to do and is placed where 
it can do that work best. In the hands of Dryden prose 
became a keen-edged instrument. 

The year 1700 is marked by the death of this poet, 
critic, dramatist, and satirist. The seventeenth century 
had seen the noblest imaginative work of Shakespeare ; 
the thoughtfulness for form of Ben Jonson ; the accu- 
rate reasoning of Bacon ; the gay trivialities, sometimes 
touched with seriousness, of the Cavalier poets ; the 
tender grace of Walton ; the earnestness, aspiration, and 
devotion of the writers of religious prose and poetry; 
the majesty of Paradise Lost; the spiritual symbolism 
of The Pilgrim s Progress ; and now, last of all, had come 
John Dryden, who stood in the story of the century for 
the development of critical judgment. The glow of the 
Elizabethan inspiration had long since passed away. 
Looking forward to the eighteenth century, one could 
not hope to find a great imaginative poetry or a 
marked originality, but one could justly expect an unus- 
ual development of literary moderation and correctness. 



Century XVII 



PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 



First Quarter of the Century. 



Francis Bacon. 
Shakespeare's later work. 
Ben Jonson. 



Beaumont and Fletcher. 
John Donne. 



Literature of the Conflict and the Commonwealth. 



John Milton, earlier poems and pamphlets. 
Izaak Walton. 



Religious poets : 

George Herbert. Henry Vaughan. 

Richard Crashaw. 



1 7th Cent] PURITANS AND ROYALISTS 1 5 1 



Religious prose writers : 

Thomas Fuller. Richard Baxter. 

Jeremy Taylor. 
Cavalier poets : 

Thomas Carew. Richard Lovelace. 

Sir John Suckling. Robert Herrick. 

Literature of the Restoration. 

Samuel Butler. John Bunyan. 

Milton, later poems. John Dryden. 



SUMMARY 

In the early years of the seventeenth century Shakespeare 
produced his finest plays, the deeper comedies and the trage- 
dies. His sonnets were published. Raleigh typifies the Eliza- 
bethan of universal ability. Bacon wrote his Instaicratio 
Magna. In 1611, the " King James version " of the Bible was 
produced. 

Next to Shakespeare in greatness, but strongly contrasted 
with him in method of work and cast of mind, was Ben Jon- 
son. His most interesting work is his masques. The ro- 
mantic plays most like Shakespeare's were those of Beaumont 
and Fletcher. In 1623, thirty-six of Shakespeare's plays 
were collected and printed. 

The drama gradually became less excellent ; partly be- 
cause it ceased to reflect life, partly because Puritan' influence 
resulted in abandoning the theatre to the careless and im- 
moral. In 1642 the theatres were closed. 

The writers of the Commonwealth were all influenced to 
some extent by the " conceits " of Donne. Their writings 
were, first, meditative and critical, represented by the earlier 
work of Milton, many of his shorter poems and his pamphlets ; 
second, earnestly religious, represented by the work of Her- 
bert, Crashaw, and Vaughan in poetry and that of Fuller, 
Taylor, and Baxter in prose ; third, in the lighter, merrier 
strain of the Cavalier poets, Carew, Suckling, Lovelace, and 



152 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [17th Cent. 



Herrick who also wrote religious poems. Izaak Walton be- 
longs to none of these classes. The Compleat A7igler is his 
best work. 

After the Restoration of 1660 Butler caricatured the Puri- 
tans in Hudih'as ; Milton produced his greatest work, Para- 
dise Lost ; and Bunyan wrote the best of allegories, The Pil- 
grim's Progress. 

The greatest writer of the last years of the century was 
Dryden. The drama revived, but valued polish rather than 
sincerity, and demanded indecency and the repression of emo- 
tion. Dryden lowered his work by yielding to the taste of 
the times. He wrote plays, poems on popular subjects, satire, 
religious argument in verse, and translated the ^Eneid and 
other works. Literary moderation and correctness marked 
the close of the century. 



CHAPTER VII 



CENTURY XVIII 

THE CENTURY OF PROSE 

92. Coffee drinking. Coffee drinking had a great 
deal to do with the development of literature in the 
eighteenth century. Some twenty years after Jonson's 
death, coffee became the fashionable drink, and coffee 
houses were opened by the hundred. These houses took 
the place of informal, inexpensive clubs ; and gradually 
one became noted as headquarters for political discus- 
sion, another for social gossip, another for ship news, 
etc. "Will's" became the special meeting-place for lit- 
erary men. Dryden was their chief, and around him 
circled several of those writers who were to do the best 
literary work of the early part of the eighteenth century. 

Not long before Dryden's death, a boy of twelve 
slipped into the edge of the circle and stood gazing at 
the great man with dark, earnest eyes ; for Dryden was 
the poet whom he most reverenced and admired. The 
boy was very small, he was badly deformed, and so 
helpless that he could not stand without supports ; but 
his mind was wonderfully active, and he hoped to be 
able some day to write poems that would make him 
famous. He had already made some attempts that 
were amazingly good for a child. 

93. Alexander Pope, 1688-1744. This boy's name 
was Alexander Pope. His father was a retired mer- 
chant who was exceedingly proud of his precocious son, 



154 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1709 



while his mother looked upon him as the most marvel- 
lous boy that ever lived. The family were Roman Cath- 
olics, and therefore he would not have been allowed to 
enter either of the universities even if he had been 
well ; but he did a vast amount of reading and study- 
ing, though with very little formal instruction. Before 




ALEXANDER POPE 
168S-1744 



he was twenty-one he had published several poems, he 
was well known among the literary men of the time, 
and associated with them upon equal terms. A drama- 
tist four times his age had asked him for suggestions 
and criticisms. One suggestion which had come to him 
from William Walsh, a critic of the day, became the 
motto of his literary life. "Be correct," said Walsh, 



I7n] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 155 

"we have had great poets, but never one great poet 
that was correct." Pope set to work to be correct. He 
wrote and rewrote and polished and condensed and re- 
fined. In 171 1, when he was only twenty- Essayon 
three, his Essay on Criticism came out. There criticism, 
is no originality in the poem ; it is simply a 1711 ' 
combination of what Latin and French critics had said ; 
but the thoughts are so clearly and concisely put that 
they seem new and fresh. For instance, there is no 
startling novelty in the statement that it is not well to 
use either obsolete words or recently formed, unauthor- 
ized words ; but when Pope writes that — 

In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold ; 
Alike fantastic, if too new or old : 
Be not the first by whom the new are try'd, 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside, 

we have a feeling that this is a most excellent way to 
express the thought. . This feeling was what gave espe- 
cial pleasure to the men of Queen Anne's day. Each 
separate thought of Pope's stands out like a crystal, and 
this clean-cut definiteness gave people the enjoyment 
that Shakespeare's perfect reading of men and his glow- 
ing imagination gave the people of his time. 

Pope's next subject was even better suited to his tal- 
ents. With the somewhat rough and ready manners of 
the age, a certain man of fashion had cut from the head 
of a maid of honor one of the — 

Two locks which graceful hung behind 
In equal curls, and well conspired to deck 
With shining ringlets the smooth iv'ry neck. 

The young lady was angry, and her family were angry. 
It was suggested to Pope that a mock-heroic poem about 
the act might help to pass the matter off with a laugh. 
This was the origin of The Rape of the Lock, one of 



156 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1714-1725 

the gayest, most sparkling little trifles ever written. 
The Rape of Po P e be g ins witn a parody on the usual way of 
the Lock. commencing an epic, and this comical air of 

1714 • . 

importance is carried through the whole poem. 
The coming of the maid to adorn the heroine is ex- 
pressed : — 

Th' inferior priestess, at her altar's side, 
Trembling begins the sacred rites of pride. 

The adventurous baron resolves to gain the curl, and 
builds to Love an altar consisting of billets-doux, a glove, 
and gilt-edged French romances. The " fays, fairies, 
genii, elves, and demons " are propitious, and he sets 
out. He arms himself with a "little engine," a " two- 
edged weapon," that is, a pair of scissors. 

The meeting points the sacred hair dissever 
From the fair head, for ever and for ever! 

A mimic war ensues and the lock vanishes. It takes its 
place among the stars and " adds new glory to the shin- 
ing sphere." 

Pope's next work was not a mock epic but a real epic, 
Pope's f° r ne translated the Iliad ; later, and with con- 
transiation siderable assistance, the Odyssey, though his 
mad, work can hardly be called a translation, for he 

1715-1720; knew very little Greek. It is rather a versifica- 
of the J . . 

Odyssey, tion of the rendering of others. It is smooth, 

1723-1725. c i ear> anc [ eaS y £ j-ea^ but has not a touch of the 

old Greek simplicity or fire. Homer's Iliad comes from 
the wind-swept plain of Troy and the shore of the thun- 
dering sea ; Pope's Iliad from a nicely trimmed garden. 
Nevertheless, gardens are not to be despised, and Pope's 
verses have the rare charm of a most exquisite finish 
and perfectness. Homer wrote, "The stars about the 
bright moon shine clear to see." Pope puts it : — 



1 728] 



THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



157 



The moon, refulgent lamp of night ! 
O'er heaven's clear azure spreads her sacred light. 

Around her throne the vivid planets roll, 
And stars unnumber'd gild the glowing pole. 

It is no wonder that Richard Bentley, one of the greatest 
scholars of the day, said, " It is a pretty poem, Mr. Pope, 
but you must not call it Homer." 

With the publication of these two works came not only 
fame but money. Pope made himself a home at Twick- 
enham on the Thames, and with his widowed mother 
he spent there the rest of his life. He knew " everybody 
who was worth knowing," he was famous, and he was 
rich ; on the other hand, he was such a sufferer that he 
spoke of his life as " one long disease." To his mother 
he was tenderness itself, and he was capable of a warm 
friendship, though one could not always count on its con- 
tinuance ; but to his enemies he was indeed just what 
they nicknamed him, " the wicked wasp of Twickenham," 
for he never hesitated to revenge in the most venomous 
verses any real or fancied slight. Even in The Rape of 
the Lock there are many scathing lines. At the sever- 
ing of the curl the heroine cries out, and Pope says with 
an undertone of bitterness, — 

Not louder shrieks to pitying heav'n are cast, 
When husbands or when lap-dogs breathe their last ; 
Or when rich China vessels fall'n from high, 
Inglitt'ring dust, and pointed fragments lie ! 

In 1728 Pope published a most malicious satire, The 
Dimciad, wherein every one who was so unfortunate as 
wittingly or unwittingly to have offended him The Dun- 
was scourged most unmercifully, for he had clad - 1728, 
forgotten his own words, " At every trifle scorn to take 
offence." Pope was the first literary man of his age, and 



158 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1732-1734 



he descended from his throne to chastise with his own 
hand every one who had not shown him due reverence. 
Men to whom he owed profound gratitude, but who had 
offended him in some trifle, and men who had been dead 
for years were attacked with equal spitefulness. Never 
was so great ability applied to so contemptible an object. 

94. Pope's Later Years. The best work of Pope's 
Essay later years was the Essay on Man, one of his 
on Man. Moral Essays. Didactic poetry can never have 
1732-1734. t j ie w j nsome charm of imaginative ; but what- 
ever power to please the former may possess is shown 
in these Essays. There are scores of single lines and 
couplets that are as familiar as proverbs. 

Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow. 

An honest man 's the noblest work of God. 

Order is heaven's first law. 

Man never is, but always to be blest. 

And spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, 

One truth is clear, Whatever is, is right. 

Pope has given us the perfection of form and finish ; 
* but when we ask for " thoughts that breathe and words 
that burn," for thoughts so far beyond our own that 
we must bow in homage, they are lacking. Lofty imagi- 
nation, sympathetic insight, humor, originality, depth, we 
do not find. Pope is great, but he is not of the greatest. 

95. Addison and Steele. When Pope was a boy of 
twelve, there was living in a London garret a man just 
twice his age who was destined to become the best prose 
writer of Queen Anne's reign. He was dignified, re- 
served with strangers, and a little shy ; but his ability 
to write had been so apparent that some time before this 
the Whigs had given him a pension of ^300. This was 
not an infrequent act when the party in power wished to 
secure the adherence of a talented young writer. The 



1704] 



THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



iS9 

and the 



king soon died, however, the Whigs were " out, 
young man, Joseph Addison, was left without 
resources. While he was living quietly in Lon- 
don, news came of the victory of Blenheim, and 
for perhaps the only time in the history of England, the 



Joseph 

Addison. 

1672-1719. 




JOSEPH ADDISON 
1672-1719 

government set out in quest of a poet. A friend recom- 
mended Addison, and he wrote a poem on the battle. 
One passage compared Marlborough to an angel who — 

Pleased the Almighty's orders to perform, 
Rides on the whirlwind and directs the storm. 

These lines carried their author far on the road to suc- 
cess. One office after another was given to him, and 



160 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1709 

the more he was known, the better he was liked. It was 
not easy to know him, for although with his friends he 
was the best companion in the world, the entrance of a 
stranger would silence him in a moment. Nevertheless, 
his kindness of heart could not be hidden, and this politi- 
cian who could not make a speech was so warmly loved 
in Ireland, where he held a government position, that 
Dean Swift wrote him that the Tories and the Whigs 
were contending which should speak best of him. 

While he was in Ireland a letter came to him from an 
old school friend, Richard Steele, which opened the 
Richard wa y to a g reater than political glory, though 
Steele. possibly when Addison read the letter, he only 

1672-1720 

smiled and said to himself, " What will Dick do 
next ! " " Dick " was one of Addison's worshippers. He 
had been a cheerful, warm-hearted boy, always getting 
into trouble, but so lovable that some one was usually 
ready to come to the rescue ; and now that he was a man, 
he had changed very little. He was married, but his 
"dearest Prue," his "prettiest woman," sometimes lived 
in luxury and sometimes was hard put to it to live at all 
in a house where food and fuel were so much a matter of 
chance. Steele had written some plays which were 
rather dull ; and he had written a religious book which 
gave him considerable trouble, for his friends were always 
expecting him, he complained, to live up to his writings. 
Plainly, however, his mind turned toward literature, and 
as a reward for some pamphlets that he had produced, 
the position of Gazetteer had been given him, that is, 
the charge of the small sheet which published govern- 
ment news. 

96. The Tatler, 1709-1711. These gazettes were 
exceedingly dull, and it occurred to Steele that to pub- 
lish a small paper containing not only the news but a 



1709-17"] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 161 

little interesting reading matter might be a successful 
undertaking. This paper was the famous Tatler, and 
it was of this that he wrote to Addison with so much 
enthusiasm. It was already well established, and instead 
of only being sent to the country by the tri-weekly post, 
as Steele had expected, it had been caught up by the 
London folk with the greatest eagerness. Its popularity 
was no marvel, for it was bright and entertaining. Steele 
wrote according to his mood ; at one time a serious little 
sermon on ranking people according to their real merits 
and not according to their riches or honors ; at another 
time a criticism of the theatre ; at another, a half-jesting, 
half-earnest page on giving testimonials. This playful 
manner of saying serious things, with its opportunities 
for humor and pathos and character drawing, was exactly 
the mode of writing adapted to Addison, though he had 
never discovered it, — no great wonder, for this sort of 
essay was something entirely new. Bacon wrote " essays," 
but with him the word meant simply a preliminary sketch 
of a subject as opposed to a finished treatise. These 
light, graceful chats on politics, manners, literature, and 
art were meant for the day only, but they were so well 
done that they have become classics. 

Suddenly Steele announced that the Tatler had come 
to its end. One reason that he gave for its discontinu- 
ance was that the previous numbers would make four 
volumes! He published them in book form with a whim- 
sical and generous little acknowledgment of the help 
that he had received from Addison. " This good Office 
he performed with such Force of Genius, Humour, Wit, 
and Learning, that I fared like a distressed Prince, who 
calls in a powerful Neighbour to his Aid ; I was undone 
by my Auxiliary; when I had once called him in, I could 
not subsist without Dependance on him." 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1711-1713 



97. The Spectator, 1711-1713. The Tatler had run 
for nearly two years. Two months after its closing num- 
ber appeared, Steele and Addison united in publishing 
the Spectator, which came out every day but Sunday. 
Sir This is even more famous than the Tatler, and 
Roger de its fame is due chiefly to " Sir Roger de Cov- 

erley," a character introduced by Steele and 
continued by Addison. Sir Roger is drawn as having 
been a gay young man of the town ; but at the time of 
his appearance in the Spectator he is a middle-aged coun- 
try gentleman, hale and hearty, loved by every one, 
believing himself to be the sternest of quarter-session 
justices, but in reality the softest-hearted man that ever 
sat on the bench. His servants and his tenants all love 
him. He has a chaplain whom he has chosen for good 
sense and understanding of backgammon, rather than for 
learning, as he did not wish to be " insulted with Latin 
and Greek" at his own table. 

All through these essays there is kindly humor, viva- 
city, and originality ; and all is expressed with exquisite 
simplicity and clearness in a style so perfectly suited to 
the thought that the reader often forgets to notice its 
excellence. The subjects, as in the Tatler, were any- 
thing and everything, and the essays themselves were 
the chat of refined, intelligent people ; they were a kind 
of ideal coffee-house "extension." 

98. Addison's other work. The Spectator came to 
an end as suddenly as the Tatler. A third paper, the 
Guardian, was begun after a short time ; but between 
cato. these two Addison brought out his drama Cato. 
1713, It was a perfectly well-bred play, — dignified 
and cold. The Spectator represented Addison with his 
friends ; Cato represented Addison with strangers. But, 
most unreasonably, this rather uninteresting drama was 



1704] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 163 



a distinct success ; for both Tories and Whigs claimed to 
be described in its fine speeches, and every one wanted 
to see it. Addison probably thought it far superior to his 
essays ; but neither that nor any other poeti- 
cal work of his is of special value, except a few Hymns- 
of his hymns. Addison's religion was sincere, and gave 
to his pen the inspiration which the theatre failed to 
furnish. His paraphrase of the twenty-third psalm, " The 
Lord my pasture shall prepare," is excellent ; but in 
"The spacious firmament on high" there is a certain 
majesty and breadth that has rarely been excelled. He 
became the Secretary of State, but died when only forty- 
seven years of age. Merry Dick Steele became Sir 
Richard on the accession of George I. Before he was 
sixty, his health failed and he retired to the country. 
There is a tradition that in the feebleness of his last 
months he insisted on being carried out to see the 
villagers dance on the green and to give them prizes. 

99. Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745. There were two 
men of the time of Queen Anne whose names are familiar 
to-day chiefly because each wrote a book that children 
like. The name Of the first was Jonathan Swift, that 
of the second was Daniel Defoe. The first time that 
Addison saw Swift was at a coffee-house. A tall stranger 
in the garb of a clergyman stalked into the room, laid 
his hat on a table, and began to stride back and forth. 
After half an hour he paid the usual penny at the bar 
and walked away. This was the eccentric clergyman 
who had come from his home in Ireland to make a visit 
to England. He had been secretary to Sir William 
Temple, and he had written a book called the ml . „ , m 

r The Tale of 

Tale of a Tub. This is an allegory wherein a a Tub. 
dying father gives his sons Peter, Martin, and 1704, 
Jack (that is, the Church of Rome, the Lutherans, and 



164 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1704 

the Calvinists) each a coat which will last throughout 
their lives if kept clean. The book describes the comi- 
cal and sometimes unseemly acts of the three. Swift 
showed great ability to write clear, strong prose ; but he 
used coarse mockery, reckless audacity, and cynical 
scorn, such unfit weapons for religious discussion that 
the clergyman author should have given up all hope of 
advancement in the church. His book, however, was so 
brilliant a satire that it gave him at once high rank as 
a wielder of the pen. 

In 1704, the year of the publication of the Tale of a 
Tub, he also brought out the Battle of the Books. This 
The Batti© had been written some time before to help Sir 
Books William Temple out of an embarrassing situa- 
1704. tion. Sir William had written an essay claim- 
ing that ancient literature was superior to modern, and 
had praised particularly a work which was soon after- 
ward shown to be a modern forgery. The secretary 
dashed into the fray, treating the dispute with a sarcastic 
seriousness which soon became coarse and savage. 

Swift had charge of a tiny parish not far from Dublin, 
but he went often to England, sometimes remaining 
several years. He wrote political pamphlets whose 
malignant ridicule delighted his politician friends. He 
cared little for money or for fame, but he longed for 
political power; and when he saw it dropped lightly 
into the hands of men who had not half his talents, he 
felt a savage scorn of those who would give authority so 
easily to men who held it so unworthily. He hoped to 
be given an English bishopric, but in view of the wrath 
which his Tale of a Tub had aroused, the utmost that 
his friends ventured to do was to make him Dean of St. 
Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin. Each piece of satire 
* that Swift produced seemed more savage than what 



1726] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



I6 5 



had preceded it. One of the most bitter is his Modest 
Proposal, which suggested that the children AModest 
of poor Irish parents should be served for food Proposal, 
on the tables of the landlords, who, he says, 1729, 
"as they have already devoured most of the parents, 
seem to have the best title to the children." The cold, 




JONATHAN SWIFT 
1667-1745 

business-like method by which he arranges the details of 
his plan is as horrible as it is powerful. Gul- Gulliver , s 
liver s Travels was written as a satire, and Travels, 
expressed his hatred and scorn of men perhaps 1726 " 
more fiercely than any other of his writings ; but " Gulli- 
ver's" journeys to Lilliput and Brobdingnag are, forget- 
ting the allegory and leaving out the occasional coarse- 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1726 



ness, most charming stories for children. Nothing 
could be more minutely accurate than his description of 
the little people of Lilliput, who are barely six inches 
high. They bring him a hogshead of wine, which holds 
just half a pint. They ascertain his height by the aid of 
a quadrant, and, finding its relation to theirs, they decide 
that he needs exactly 1724 times as much food as one 
of themselves. Swift makes no slip. From beginning 
to end, everything is consistent with the country of six- 
inch people. In Brobdingnag, matters are reversed, for 
Brobdingnag is a land of giants where Gulliver has a 
terrible encounter with a rat of the size of a large 
mastiff, has to swim for his life in a vast bowl of cream, 
and comes nearest to death when a year-old baby tries 
to cram him into its mouth. So perfectly is the illusion 
carried out that the hero is represented on his return to 
his own country as stooping to enter his house because 
the door seems to him so dangerously low. 

If it were not for chance words and for Swift's let- 
ters, we should think of him as half mad with hatred and 
Character scorn ; but two men as unlike as Pope and 
of Swift. Addison cherished his friendship. Pope wrote 
that he loved and esteemed him, and Addison dedicated 
a book to him as " the most agreeable companion, the 
truest friend, and the greatest genius of his age." 
Somewhere in his nature there was a charm which held 
both the " wicked wasp of Twickenham " and the gentle, 
ever courteous Addison. His letters, too, written to 
Letters to "Stella," his pet name for a young girl whom 
"Stella." he knew and taught at Sir William Temple's, 
are frankly affectionate ; and even as she grew to mature 
womanhood, he still reported to her all the chat of the 
day and the little happenings to himself in which he 
knew she would be interested. 



1702-1745] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 167 

Be you lords or be you earls, 
You must write to naughty girls, 

he wrote to her. In 1728 Stella died, and this hater of 
his race and lover of individuals sorrowfully held for 
an hour the unopened letter that he knew announced 
her death. There was from the first a wild strain of 
insanity in this many-sided man, and for several years 
before his death his mind failed. He died in 1745. 

100. Daniel Defoe, 16619-1731. Swift would have 
looked upon it as the very irony of fate if he had known 
that his most bitter satire had become a book for chil- 
dren ; but Daniel Defoe would have been pleased, though 
perhaps a little amused, to find that his Robinson Crusoe, 
which he published as a real account of a real man, had 
become not only a children's book but a work of the 
imagination. Defoe was educated to be a non-conformist 
clergyman, but he was little adapted to the profession. 
He -was like Steele in his proneness to get into scrapes, 
but unlike Steele, he could usually find a way out. 
When " King Monmouth " made his attempt to gain the 
throne, Defoe was one of his adherents ; but in some 
way he escaped punishment, and afterwards became a 
strong supporter of William and Mary. He soon showed 
that he could write most forcible English, and The 

his Shortest Way with Dissenters proved him Shortest 
, , r .. ~ . r , . , r Way with 

almost as much of a satirist as Swift himself. Dissenters. 
There is a vast difference, however, in the 1702, 
satire of the two men ; for Defoe shows nothing of 
Swift's hatred of his race ; and, earnest as he makes 
himself appear in his pamphlets, we always think of him 
as smiling wickedly over his pen to think how well he 
was befooling his readers. In this pamphlet he suc- 
ceeded almost too well. He suggested that an excellent 
means of securing religious uniformity would be to hang 



168 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1692-1703 

dissenting ministers and banish their people. It was a 
time of severe laws and stern retribution, and the Dis- 
senters were actually alarmed. Moreover, Parliament, 
too, persisted in taking the matter seriously, declared 
the pamphlet a libel on the English nation, and con- 
demned its author to stand in the pillory. Most men 
would have been somewhat troubled, but Defoe and his 
Ode to the P en were ec l ua ^ to tne occasion ; and while in 
Pillory. prison awaiting his punishment, he wrote an 
Ode to the Pillory, which he called a state 
machine for punishing fancy. He closed with a message 
to his judges, — 

Tell them : The men that placed him here 
Are scandals to the Times ! 
Are at a loss to find his guilt, 
And can't commit his crimes ! 

Defoe carried the day. He stood in the pillory ; but 
flowers were heaped around him, he was cheered* by 
crowds of admiring bystanders, and thousands of copies 
of his Ode were sold. 

Defoe was the most inventive, original man of his 
age, and he even published an Essay on Projects, sug- 
Essayon gesting all sorts of new things. Among them 
written' was P^ an f° r S lvm S t° women the education 
ai)outi692. which was then limited to men. He said, "If 
knowledge and understanding had been useless additions 
to the sex, God Almighty would never have given them 
capacities ; for he made nothing useless." Strikingly 
similar to these words of Defoe is the statement of 
Matthew Vassar a century and a half later in founding 
the first college for women : " It occurred to me that 
woman, having received from her Creator the same in- 
tellectual constitution as man, has the same right as man 
to intellectual culture and development." 



1 719] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 169 

One of Defoe's projects came to more fame ' and 
importance than he dreamed. Every one was interested 
in a sailor named Alexander Selkirk, who had been 




DANIEL DEFOE 
1659-1731 



abandoned on the island of Juan Fernandez, and who, 
after five years of loneliness, had been rescued and 
brought to England. Defoe went with the rest of the 
world to see the man and talk with him ; but while 
others soon forgot his story, Defoe remem- RoWnson 
bered, and a few years later he wrote Robinson Crusoe. 
Crusoe, an account of a man who was wrecked 1719, 
on a desert island with nothing except a knife, a pipe, a 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1722 



little tobacco in a box, and a hope of getting some 
articles from the wreck of the vessel. This book became 
a favorite at once. It was so realistic that every reader 
fancied himself in the sailor's place and planned with 
him what to do for safety and comfort. This is just 
where Defoe's unique power lies, in putting himself in 
the place of his characters. In Robinson Crusoe he im- 
agined himself on the island and thought how he could 
get to the vessel, for instance, and how he should feel 
to find a footprint on the sand when he supposed that he 
was entirely alone. Having fancied what he should do, 
it was easy to put his thoughts into clear, simple Eng- 
lish, never forgetting that his aim was to tell a story, 
not to ornament phrases. The book was so successful 
that Defoe wrote a continuation of the adventures of 
his hero. It was very like him to insert an aggrieved 
little preface, taking high moral grounds against the 
"envious people" who had called his work a romance, 
and saying that doing such deeds was "a Practice all 
honest Men abhor." 

Three years after Robinson Crusoe appeared, Defoe 
produced his Journal of the Plague Year, which, was writ- 
a Journal ten, the title-page gravely asserts, "by a citizen 

°* the who continued all the while in London." This 
Plague 

Year. 1722. was literally true, although the aforesaid citizen 
was but four or five years old at the time of the visita- 
tion. The book describes minutely all the details of 
the terrible season, from the piteous " Lord, have mercy 
upon us !" written on the houses to the coming of the 
horrible dead cart that sometimes carried away the 
dying with the dead. It is most impressive, and has 
more than once been quoted as authority on the events 
of the pestilence. Defoe wrote several picaresque stories, 
or stories having rascals for heroes, each tale expected, 



1 702-1 714] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



171 



according to the preface of the author, to bring any 
wicked reader to repentance. 

101. The Age of Queen Anne. — The novel. Taking 
a general view of the Age of Queen Anne, we see that 
it was marked, first, by the development of literary 
criticism ; and, second, by the excellence of its prose 
and the beginning of the periodical. In poetry espe- 
cially certain principles were tacitly adopted as producing 
the correctness which the age demanded. The five-beat 
line of Dryden and Pope, with the thought neatly en- 
closed within a well-polished rhymed couplet, became 
the generally accepted ideal of perfection. This did not 
tend to a free manifestation of poetical ability ; but it 
did tend to produce prose so accurate, graceful, and 
agreeable as to become the glory of the Age of Anne. 
Its best manifestation was in the periodicals whose estab- 
lishment was the second distinguishing mark of the age. 
They had been preceded by newspapers ; but the Tatler 
and the Spectator were not bare chronicles of events, 
they were not the controversial weeklies of the Civil 
War, they were real literature, and their prose had not 
only usefulness but beauty. 

Prose was soon to discover a new field, the novel. 
There had been Elizabethan romances, The Pilgrims 
Progress, Dryden' s translations, and the slender thread 
of narrative fiction in the Spectator. Then had come 
Robinson Crusoe, which, like The Pilgrim s Progress, was 
artistic enough to satisfy the most critical and simple 
enough to delight the most ignorant. The next step 
was the novel, that is, the story which pictures 
real life and deals with the passions, especially 
that of love. The novel must have a plot, it must have 
prominent and secondary characters ; and, just as in a 
play, these characters must act naturally " and must 



172 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



[1740 



change as they are acted upon by incidents or by other 
characters. 

102. Samuel Richardson, 1689-1761. The first book 
that fully answered these requirements was written 

by Samuel Richard- 
son, a successful 
middle-aged printer. 
He had never writ- 
ten a book, but he 
had written letters 
by the score, and 
had written them so 
well that some one 
suggested his pub- 
lishing a series of 
letters about every- 
day home life to 
serve as models for 
those who lacked his 
ability. The idea 
struck Richardson 
favorably, and it oc- 
curred to him that 
the interest would 
be increased if there 
were some thread of 
connection between the letters. The result was Pa- 
mela, or Virtue Rewarded, the first English novel. It 
Pamela, came out in 1740, declaring on its title-page 
or virtue its object was "to cultivate the Principles 

Rewarded. J m r 

1740. of Virtue and Religion." Pamela Andrews is 

a friendless young woman who is persecuted by the at- 
tentions of a fashionable reprobate. Finally, after being 
converted to honor and uprightness by her virtue, he 




SAMUEL RICHARDSON 
1689-1761 



1742-1749] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



173 



offers her marriage, and she accepts him. The story 
goes on, volume after volume ; but the fiction-hungry 
people of 1740 were sorry when it came to an end. 

103. Henry Fielding, 1707-1754. Everybody was 
interested in Pamela, but a writer of comic plays named 
Henry Fielding was not only interested but amused ; 
for the sentimentality of the book and its rather patron- 
izing tone of giving good moral advice struck him as 
being ludicrous. Straightway he seized his pen and 
began in caricature Joseph Andrews. Joseph is Joseph 
Pamela's brother, and he is as much tormented Andrews, 
by the devotion of a certain widow as was 1742, 
Pamela by the attentions of her persecutor. Fielding 
had more ability to make his characters seem real than 
Richardson, but he was not the superior of the publisher 
in delicate strokes and careful attention to details. 

Within thirteen years after the appearance of Pamela, 
Richardson wrote two more novels, Sir Charles Grandi- 
son and his best work, Clarissa Harlowe. There Clarissa 
were eight volumes of Clarissa, and after the Harlowe. 
appearance of the first four, Richardson was 1748, 
besieged by letters without number, telling him how 
their writers had wept over his pathos, and beseeching 
him to give the story a happy ending. Fielding, too, 
produced other novels, and of these, Tom Jones Tom Jones 
is his best work. Fielding is strong and robust. 1749. 
His novels are as breezy as if they had been written on 
a mountain top and as true to life as if they had come 
from the very heart of a London crowd. Unfortunately, 
they as well as, in varying degree, all the novels of the 
time, are marked by what seems to the present age a 
revolting coarseness. 

104. Tobias Smollett, 1721-1771. Two other nov- 
elists were soon added to the company, Tobias George 



174 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1748-1768 



Smollett and Laurence Sterne. Smollett studied medi- 
cine and went to sea as a ship doctor, but his real interest 
Roderick was m literature, an d in 1748 he wrote Roderick 
Random. Random, which pictures many scenes from his 

own life, with here and there a bit of tender- 
ness or whimsicality. Several other works followed 
this, animated and interesting, but without Fielding's 
accurate character drawing. 

105. Laurence Sterne, 1713-1763. Sterne was an 
Irish clergyman with a good income and an irregular 
talent. His three works are as inconsistent as the man 

himself, for one is a collection of sermons ; one, 

Tristram ' ' ' 

Shandy. Tristram Shandy \ a whimsical delineation of 
1759-1767. home iif e w [fo one or two delightful characters ; 
and one, The Sentimental Journey. In this Sterne is 
TheSenti- sometimes frankly immoral; sometimes he 
Journey gives us beautiful little descriptions ; some- 
1768. times his sentiment is ridiculously affected ; 
sometimes he gives such passages as the following 
meditation on the Bastile : — 

And as for the Bastile — the terror is in the word. — Make the 
most of it you can, said I to myself, the Bastile is but another word 
for a tower ; — and a tower is but another word for a house you 
can't get out of. — Mercy on the gouty ! for they are in it twice a 
year — but with nine livres a day, and pen and ink and paper and 
patience, albeit a man can't get out, he may do very well within, — 
at least for a month or six weeks ; at the end of which, if he is a 
harmless fellow, his innocence appears, and he comes out a better 
and wiser man than he went in. 

After thus moralizing himself into satisfaction, sud- 
denly he hears a starling in a cage who has learned to 
say the one sentence, " I can't get out." Sterne's mood 
changes. He writes a glowing address to liberty, pic- 
tures one captive and his sorrows, and sends his ser- 
vant away, "not willing he should see anything upon 



1750-1780] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 175 

my cheek which would cost the honest fellow a heart- 
ache." 

106. Samuel Johnson, 1709-1784. The decade 
marked by the beginning of the novel was from 1740 
to 1750. The chief place of literary honor during the 
thirty years following 1750 is given to a man whose 
essays are not so good as those of Addison and Steele, 
whose dictionary was antiquated long ago, whose prin- 
cipal story is voted dry, whose edition of Shakespeare 




DR. JOHNSON 
I 709-I 784 



is worthless, and whose Lives of the Poets alone is of 
any special value to-day. This man was Samuel Johnson. 
He was the sickly, nervous son of a Lichfield bookseller. 



I7& ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1755 

He made his way to the university, pitifully poor, but 
too independent to accept help. A few years later, he 
opened a private school for boys. He was very large and 
awkward ; he rolled from side to side when he walked ; 
he grumbled and muttered, and his face, seamed and 
scarred by disease, trembled and twitched. The wonder 
is not that the school was a failure, but that even one 
pupil ventured to attend it. After the failure Johnson 
went to London with a capital of twopence half-penny 
and a partly completed tragedy. His aim was to find 
literary work ; and for some time he did whatever there 
was to do. After ten years or more of drudgery, he was 
little richer than at first ; but he had become so well 
known that several booksellers united in offer- 

Johnson's . _ . 

Dictionary, ing him fifteen hundred guineas to prepare a 
1755, dictionary of the English language. Seven or 
eight years of hard work passed, and the book was com- 
pleted. It shows that its author knew nothing of etymo- 
logy, — but in those days comparatively little was known 
of the science by any one, — its definitions are some- 
times exceedingly good, and sometimes based upon the 
whims of the writer ; for instance, he hated the Scotch, 
and therefore he defined oats as " grain which in England 
is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports 
the people." It was still the feeling in England that a 
book of such importance should be dedicated 

P citron 3, ^6 

to a " patron," who was expected to return the 
honor by an interest in the work and generous assistance. 
The plan of the dictionary had been addressed to Lord 
Chesterfield, and this dainty nobleman at first encour- 
aged its author; but he soon tired of the uncouth scholar, 
whom he called " a respectable Hottentot, who throws 
his meat anywhere but down his throat," and was " not 
at home" to his calls. 



1750-1759 THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



177 



When it was known that the dictionary was about to 
appear, Chesterfield became interested, and hoped, in 
spite of his neglect, to secure the dedication to himself. 
He published letters recommending it, but they were 
too late. Johnson published in return a reply which was 
calm and dignified, but so scathing that it practically 
ended literary patronage save that of the public. The 
book came out. It was infinitely better than anything 
preceding, and it was received with an enthusiasm which 
in this age of dictionaries can hardly be imagined. 

In the course of the seven years that Johnson spent 
on the dictionary, he published the Rambler, a periodical 
made up of essays written after the fashion of ^ 
Addison's, but lacking Addison's light touch Rambler, 
and graceful humor. Neither these nor the 1750 " 1 752. 
dictionary added any large amount to the author's 
finances ; and when, in 1759, the death of his mother 
occurred, he had not money for the funeral expenses. 
To raise it, he wrote in the evenings of one Rasseias, 
week, Rasseias, Prince of Abyssinia. This is Jjjjjj* 
usually called a story, but the characters serve 1759. 
only as mouthpieces for the various reflections of the 
author. " Abyssinia " is simply a convenient name for 
an imaginary country. 

Three years after the publication of the dictionary the 
government offered Johnson a pension of ^300. Even 
in his poverty the independent lexicographer j ohnS on's 
hesitated to accept it ; and well he might, for pension, 
in his dictionary he had defined a pension as "pay given 
to a state hireling for treason to his country;" but he 
was finally made to see that the offered gift was not a 
bribe but a reward for what he had already accom- 
plished. He accepted it, and then life became easier. 

107. James Boswell, 1740-1795. It was about this 



r;8 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1763-1784 



time that he met a Scotchman named Boswell, who be- 
came his humble worshipper. Wherever Johnson went, 
Boswell followed. Boswell asked all sorts of questions, 
both useful and idle, just to see what reply his oracle 
would make. The great man snubbed the 'little man, 
and the little man hastened home to write in his jour- 
nal what a superb snub it was. Mrs. Boswell was not 
pleased. " I have seen a bear led by a man," she said, 
"but never before a man led by a bear." Johnson once 
wrote her, " The only thing in which I have the honour 
to agree with you is in loving him ; " for the young wor- 
shipper had at last won a return of affection from his 
idol. For twenty years he wrote at night every word 
that he could remember of Johnson's conversation 
through the day. It was well worth noting, for Johnson 
was the best talker of the age. Now that his 

Johnson's & 

conversa- pension relieved him of want, he had little in- 
tion " clination to make the effort required by writ- 
ing, but he was ever ready to talk. Much of his best 
talking was done at the famous Literary Club, which he, 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, and Edmund Burke founded. He 
always seemed to feel that literary composition required 
the use of long words and a ponderous rolling up of 
phrases ; but his conversation was direct and simple. 
He argued, he spoke of history, of biography, of liter- 
ature or morals. His scholarship, his powerful intel- 
lect, and his colloquial powers gave value to whatever 
he said. When a new book came out, the first question 
asked by the public was, " What does the Club say of 
it?" Johnson was the great man of the Club, and for 
years he was really, as he has so often been called, the 
literary dictator of England. 

108. Johnson's later work. During the last twenty 
years of his life he did a comparatively small amount of 



1765-1784] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



179 



literary work. He edited Shakespeare, an undertaking 

for which his slight knowledge of the six- Edition of 

teenth century drama had given him but an Shake " 
J , speare. 

ill preparation. He journeyed to Scotland, 1765. 
and was treated so kindly that much of his prejudice 
against the Scotch melted away. His letters about this 
journey, written to a friend, were easy and TneJour- 
natural ; but when he made them into a book, i e * *° tlie 

' ' Hebrides. 

The youruey to the Hebrides, they were trans- 1775. 

lated into the ceremoniously elaborate phraseology 

which alone he regarded as worthy of print. His best 

work was his Lives of the Poets, a series of The Lives 

sketches prepared for a collection of English ofthePoets, 
r r & 1779 ; en- 

poetry. These were intended to be very short, largedin 

but Johnson became interested in them, and 1781 ' 
did far more than he had agreed. The result is not 
only brief "lives" of the authors but criticisms of their 
writings. These criticisms are not always just, for 
sometimes Johnson's strong prejudices and sometimes 
his lack of the power to appreciate certain qualities 
stood in the way of fairness ; but, fair or unfair, they 
are the honest expression of an independent, powerful 
mind, and every one is well worth reading. This was 
Johnson's last work. He died in 1784. 

109. Oliver Goldsmith, 1728-1774. One of John- 
son's special friends at the Club was the poet Oliver 
Goldsmith, a genial, gay-hearted Irishman, a boy all his 
life. What to do with him was always a puzzling ques- 
tion to his friends. His bishop would not accept him 
as a clergyman, either because of his pranks at the 
university or because of the scarlet breeches which he 
insisted upon wearing. A devoted uncle sent him to 
London to study law ; but on the way he was beguiled 
into gambling and did not reach the city. He began to 



180 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1760-1766 

study medicine at Edinburgh ; made his way to Leyden 
for further instruction ; borrowed money to go to Paris, 
but spent it on rare tulip bulbs for his uncle ; and finally 
set out to travel over the Continent "with but one spare 
shirt, a flute, and a single guinea." He took his degree 
probably at Padua, went to London,- read proof for 
Richardson, acted as tutor in an academy, wrote chil- 
dren's books — possibly Goody Two Shoes. He thought 
of going to India as a physician, of exploring central 
Letters Asia, of journeying to Aleppo to study the 
fromacit- ar t s of the East. He had no special longing 
world. to become a knight of the quill, but he needed 
1760-1761. mone y an d he wrote. Letters from a Citizen 
of the World brought him a small sum ; an agreeable 
History of ^tle History of England brought more; but 
England. Goldsmith had no more providence than a spar- 
1764, ■ row, and soon Johnson, like his early friends in 
Ireland, began to wonder what to do with "Noll." His 
careless fashion of living was entirely different from 
Johnson's sturdy uprightness ; but Johnson's heart was 
big enough to sympathize with him, and when a mes- 
sage came one morning that Goldsmith was in great 
trouble, Johnson guessed what the matter was and sent 
him a guinea, following it himself as soon as possible. 

Goldsmith had not paid his rent, and his landlady had 
arrested him. The two men discussed what could be 
done, and Goldsmith produced the manuscript of a novel 
The vicar reac ty f° r tne P ress - Johnson carried it to a 
of wake- bookseller and sold it for £60. This was the 
field. 1766. manuscr jpt f the Vicar of Wakefield ; but the 
publisher did not realize what a prize he had won, and 
TheTrav- was m n0 naste to bring the book out. In the 
eiier. 1764. mean time, Goldsmith's Traveller appeared. 
Then there was a sensation at the Club; for, save 



1764-1766] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



l8l 



by Johnson, Reynolds, Burke, and perhaps a few others, 
Goldsmith has been looked upon as a mere literary 
drudge. He had felt the unspoken contempt, and had 
been awkward and ill at ease. Now that the Club and 



the other literary folk of the day declared that the 
Traveller was the best poem that had appeared since 
the death of Pope, Goldsmith's peculiarities were no 
longer called awkwardness, but the whims of a man of 
genius. Then came out the Vicar of Wakefield with its 
ridiculous plot, its delightful humor, its gentleness, its 
comical situations, and the exquisite grace of style that 
marked the work of Goldsmith's pen, whether poem or 
novel or history. Again the literary world was delighted ; 




OLIVER GOLDSMITH 

1728-1774 



1 82 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1768-1773 

but the £60 received for the manuscript had long ago 
The Good- been spent. His next work was a comedy, The 
Natured Good-Natured Man. This gave him ,£500 ; 
Man. 1768. s t ra jghtway he began to live as if he were 
to have ,£500 a month. Soon his pockets were empty, 
and the much praised Dr. Goldsmith was again at the 
beck and call of the booksellers. He wrote history, 
TneDe- natural history, whatever they called for; one 
serted vu- thing was as easy as another. In 1770 he wrote 
lage. 1770. The Deserted Village. Like almost all of Pope's 
work, this is written in the rhymed heroic couplet, but 
here the resemblance ends. Pope's writings were pol- 
ished ; Goldsmith's were marked by an inimitable natu- 
ral charm, the charm of a graceful style, of a tenderness 
and delicate humor of which Pope never dreamed. The 
idea of the poem is pathetic ; but the parts that come to 
mind oftenest are the sympathetic description of the 
village pastor who was " passing rich with forty pounds 
a year," and the picture of the schoolmaster: — 

In arguing, too, the parson owned his skill, 
For, even tho' vanquished, he could argue still ; 
While words of learned length and thundering sound 
Amazed the gazing rustics ranged around ; 
And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew, 
That one small head could carry all he knew. 

Once more Goldsmith wrote a play, She Stoops to 
Conquer. This was founded upon his own adventures 
She stoops wnen fi rst possessed of a guinea and a bor- 
to conquer, rowed horse. " Where is the best house in the 
1773, place?" he had demanded in a strange village 
with all the airs that he fancied to be the mark of an 
experienced traveller. The home of a wealthy gentle- 
man was mischievously pointed out, and the young fel- 
low rode up to the door, gave his orders right and left, 



THE CENTURY OF PROSE 183 



and finally invited his host and family to join him in a 
bottle of wine. The host had discovered that the con- 
sequential youngster was the son of an old friend, and 
he carried on the mistake till the boy was about to take 
his leave. 

This play was Goldsmith's last work. His income 
had become sufficient for comfort; but he had no idea 
how to manage it, and he was always in debt. He died 
when not yet forty-six years of age, the same careless, 
generous, lovable boy to the end. His bust was placed 
in Westminster Abbey by the Club. Johnson wrote the 
inscription, which said that he "left scarcely any style 
of writing untouched, and touched nothing that he did 
not adorn." 

110. Edmund Burke, 1729-1797. This period, al- 
ready so rich in essays and novels and poetry, was 
also marked by oratory and history. Its greatest orator 
was Edmund Burke, an Irishman, who made his way 
to England and began his literary work by publishing 
essays about the time when Johnson's die- onthesub- 
tionary came out, the most famous being On jjU^JJJ 
the Sublime and Beautiful. Johnson admired 1756. 
him heartily, and felt that in him he had an opponent 
worthy of his steel. "That fellow calls forth all my 
powers," he said. At another time he declared that a 
stranger could not talk with Burke five minutes in the 
street without saying to himself, " This is an extraordi- 
nary man." 

Burke entered Parliament and was one of the most 
prominent figures of the House in the stormy days pre- 
ceding the American Revolution. Then it was speech on 
that he made his famous Speech on Concilia- JJJJJjjJjJJJJ 
tion with America. On the part of the govern- tea. 1775. 
ment he was the most prominent prosecutor of Warren, 



184 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1759-1790 

Hastings for abuse of power in India. The Reign of 
Reflections Terror in France called forth his Reflections on 
on the the French Revolution. Burke was not merely 

French Re- .. . . . . . , . % 

volution. a politician ; he was a thinker and orator and 
1790. p oet w ^ devoted himself to politics. The 
thought is always first with him, but in the expression 
of the thought he is generous in his use of poetical 
adornment ; and yet his adornment is vastly more than 
a mere decoration. In his Conciliation, foHnstance, no 
statistics would have given his audience nearly so good 
an idea of the energy and enterprise of the colonists as 
his picturesque description of the manner in which they 
had carried on the whale fishery : — 

Whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice, 
and behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of 
Hudson's Bay and Davis's Straits, whilst we are looking for them 
beneath the Arctic Circle, we hear that they have pierced into the 
opposite region of polar cold, that they are at the antipodes, and 
engaged under the frozen Serpent of the north. 

111. William Robertson, 1721-1793. The historians 
of the eighteenth century are represented by William 
Robertson, David Hume, and Edward Gibbon. Rob- 
ertson was a Scotch clergyman who wrote of three 
different countries, A History of Scotland during the 
Reigns of Queen Mary and James the Sixth, in 1759; 
then The History of Charles V. of Germany ; and finally, 
A History of America. 

112. David Hume, 1711-1776. David Hume was 
also a Scotchman, a man of such indomitable perse- 
verance that his energy was not conquered even by 
years of unsuccessful effort. At twenty-three he de- 
termined to devote himself to literature. His first book 
was a failure, but he struggled on with many failures 
and small success. He was not the kind of man to be 



I7S4-I787] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



185 



discouraged, and with the utmost composure he set to 
work on a History of England. The first vol- History of 
ume failed. He wrote a second.- That failed. ??fi an<L 

1754- 

He wrote a third. It was received with some 1761. 
slight interest. He continued, and at last the reading 
world began to appreciate what he had done. They 
discovered that whatever was narrated was told vividly, 
that Hume recognized a great event when he saw it, 
and took pains to trace not only its effect but the causes 
which led up to it ; and that he was interested not only 
in great events but in the people and their ways. One 
fault was common to both Hume and Robertson, or 
possibly in some degree to their age, a lack of historical 
accuracy, the most unpardonable fault in a writer of 
history. 

113. Edward Gibbon, 1737-1794. No such charge 
can be made against the writings of Edward Gibbon. 
He was an Englishman with whom, even as a boy, the 
love of history was a passion. The idea of History of 
writing the History of the Decline and Fall of JUfSoT 
the Roman Empire came to him in Rome in the Roman 
1764, but the first volume did not appear until ^g 1 ™' 
1776. The labor involved in preparing this 1787. 
work was enormous. It was not the simple story of a 
single people, but a complicated narrative involved with 
the history of all Europe. Merely to collect the neces- 
sary knowledge was a gigantic task. It demanded a most 
powerful intellect to arrange the facts, and to show their 
proper connection ; a remarkable literary ability to pre- 
sent them clearly and attractively. All this Gibbon did, a 
little ponderously sometimes, but vividly and eloquently. 
He is by far the greatest of the eighteenth century his- 
torians. 

114. New qualities in literature. In the literature 



186 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1751 

of the last quarter of the century certain qualities were 
seen which were new chiefly in that they were much 
more strongly manifested than before. First, there 
was more interest in man simply because he was man, 
and not because he was rich or of noble birth. The 
revolution in America and the early part of the revo- 
lution in France emphasized the idea that every one, 
no matter of how lowly a position, possessed rights. 
Second, there was a genuine love of real nature, not 
nature made into clipped hedges and gravelled walks. 
Third, there was a certain impatience of restraint, an 
unwillingness to accept the conclusions of others. Sub- 
jects were chosen that were of personal interest to 
the author and were therefore treated with warmth of 
feeling. 

115. Thomas Gray, 1716-1771. These qualities were 
the marks of what is known as the romantic revival, a 
revolt against the artificial formality of Pope and his 
followers. Even while Pope was alive and at the height 
of his fame, poets in both Scotland and England began 
to manifest a sincere love for nature and to break away 
from the rhymed couplet. In 175 1, seven years after 
the death of Pope, a notable poem was produced by 
Thomas Gray, a quiet, sensitive scholar who spent more 
than half his life in Cambridge. Here he wrote his 
Gray's famous Elegy in a Country Churchyard. For 
Elegy. eight years he kept the Elegy by him, adding, 
1751 ' taking away, polishing, and refining, until it 
had become worthy, even in form, to be named among 
the great poems of the world. Its fame, however, is due 
less to its polish than, first, to its genuine interest in the 
lives of the poor, to its sympathy with their pleasures 
and realization of their hardships ; and, second, to its 
observation of the little things of nature, the " moping 



1765] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 187 

• 

owl," the " droning flight " of the beetle, " the swallow 
twittering from the straw-built shed." Nature, accord- 
ing to the school of Pope, was rude and perhaps a little 
vulgar until smoothed and trimmed and made into lawns 
and gardens. Pope might have brought a swan or a 
peacock into a poem, but he would hardly have thought 
it fitting to introduce beetles or swallows, save the swal- 
lows that "roost in Nilus' dusty urn." Neither would 
Pope have thought a ploughman who " homeward plods 
his weary way" a proper subject for poetry. To Pope 
a ploughman was simply a part of the world's machinery, 
and he would no more have written about him than about 
a bolt or a screw. All Gray's poems can be contained 
in one thin volume, but their significance, especially that 
of the Elegy, can hardly be overestimated. 

116. Percy's Reliques, 1765. Interest in roman- 
ticism was greatly strengthened by the appearance in 
1765 of a book called The Reliques of Ancient English 
Poetry, but better known as " Percy's Reliques." This 
was a collection of old ballads made by Bishop Percy. 
Unfortunately he felt that in their original form they 
were too rude to be presented to the literary world ; 
and therefore he smoothed and polished them to some 
extent, substituting lines of his own for such as were 
missing or such as appeared to him unworthy. The 
timid editor was astounded to find that these old ballads 
received a hearty welcome, and that their very sim- 
plicity and rude directness were their great charm to 
people who were tired of couplets and criticism. 

117. William Cowper, 1731-1800. Thus the Elegy, 
the Reliques, and even Goldsmith's Deserted Village, 
written in couplets as it was, helped on the new roman- 
ticism. So did the work of William Cowper, who began 
to write soon after the death of Goldsmith, and who 



188 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1785 

resembled Goldsmith in love of nature and in writing 
straight from the heart. As a boy Cowper was the 
shyest of children, and it is no wonder that the timid 
little fellow suffered agonies when at the age of six he 
was sent to boarding school. From time to time through- 
out his life his mind was unbalanced, often because the 
gentle, conscientious man feared that his sins were un- 
pardonable. His later years were spent in the quiet vil- 
lages of Weston and Olney ; and he sent to his friends 
most charming letters about his pets, his garden, his 
long walks about the country, and the merry thoughts 
and witty fancies that were continually coming into his 
mind. Every one Jtnew him and every one loved him. 
He was as happy as was possible to him. Here it was 
that he wrote. Many of his hymns, such as God moves 
in a mysterious way, and Oh ! for a closer walk with 
God, are familiar ; but equally well known are The 
Diverting History of John Gilpin with its rollicking fun, 
and The Task. " What shall I write on ? " the poet 
once asked his friend Lady Austen. "The sofa," she 
The Task, replied jestingly. He obeyed, and named his 
1785. poem The Task. He wrote first and with mock 
dignity about the evolution of the sofa. Then he slipped 
away from parlors and cities and wrote of the country 
that he loved. 

God made the country, and man made the town, 

he said. Here he is at his best. Every season was dear 
to him. He writes of winter : — 

I love thee, all unlovely as thou seemest, 
And dreaded as thou art. 

He sympathizes with the horses dragging a heavy wagon 
in the storm ; he notes the robin, — 



1775] 



THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



Flitting light 
From spray to spray, where'er he rests he shakes 
From many a twig the pendant drops of ice 
That tinkle in the withered leaves below. 

He says indignantly: — 

I would not enter on my list of friends 

(Though graced with polished manners and fine sense, 

Yet wanting sensibility) the man 

Who needlessly sets foot upon a worm. 

All this was quite different from the earlier poetry of the 
century. Pope's influence had not disappeared by any 
means, and Cowper could write such balanced lines as — 

Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more ; 

but this frank love of nature and simple things was not 
in the least like Pope ; and there was more and even 
better poetry of this sort to be done before the close of 
the century by a Scotchman named Robert Burns. 

118. Robert Burns, 1759-1796. Burns was the son 
of an intelligent, religious farmer. His years of school 
were few, but he was by no means an ignorant man, for 
he had a shelf of good books, and he had long evenings of 
conversation with his father, a man of no common mould. 
Another thing was of the utmost value to him who was 
to become the poet of Scotland, and that was his mother's 
familiarity with the ballads and songs of the olden time, 
and the fairy tales and legends with which the mind of one 
Betty Davidson, a member of the family, was stocked. 

When Burns was sixteen, he met a pretty girl, and 

wrote a poem to her, Handsome Nell. This Bums's 

was the beginning, and from that time until JJ rst P° ein > 
& . & ' Handsome 

he was twenty-eight, his life was full of song- Neil. 1775. 
writing, of hard work, and of the rather wild merry- 
making of one or two clubs. He had no model for his 



190 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1786 

poetry except the poems of Allan Ramsay, who wrote 
in the early part of the century, and Robert Fergus- 
son, who wrote about the middle. When Burns dis- 
covered Fergusson's work, he was delighted, for here 
was a poet who wrote in Scotch, who loved nature, who 
had a turn for satire keen and kindly, and a touch of 
humor. Burns felt that he had found a master, and for 
some time he meekly followed Fergusson's ways of writ- 
ing and imitated his metres without apparently the least 
idea that he himself was far greater than his predecessor. 

When Burns was twenty-five, his father died. He 
and his brother tried hard to make some profit from the 
farm, but it seemed hopeless. Robert's own wildness 
had brought him into difficulties, and he determined to 
go to Jamaica. One thing must be had first, and that 
was the money for his outfit and his passage. Some of 
his friends suggested that printing the poems which he 
Burns's ^ a< ^ WI "itten might help to fill his empty purse, 
first vol- In 1786 the little volume was published, and 

ume. 1786. ■, r i • 1 • 1 1 • • tt 

the poet telt rich with his twenty guineas. He 
bought his outfit, paid his passage, and wrote what he 
supposed was the last song he should ever compose in 
Scotland. The vessel was not quite ready to sail, and 
while he waited, a letter came which suggested that it 
might be worth while to publish an edition of his poems 
Vlsitt0 in Edinburgh. For the glory and gain of such 
Edinburgh. a possibility, the poet set out for Edinburgh 
and the ship sailed without him. He had no letters of 
introduction to the great folk of the capital city, but none 
were needed, for his poems had gone before him ; and he, 
the young peasant fresh from his unsuccessful farming, 
found himself the social and literary lion of the day. The 
new edition of his poems came out, and he was feted and 
flattered until many a brain would have turned. 



1786-1788] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



191 



The farmer poet, however, was perfectly self-possessed. 
He was not in the least overpowered by the attention 
shown him. His only mistake was in not re- D isa p poin t_ 
alizing that the people who praised him so meat 
heartily would forget all about him in a month. He 
hoped that some of those men of rank and wealth who 
claimed to be his friends 
and admirers would help 
to secure for him some 
position in which he 
could have part of his 
time free for poetry. He 
was disappointed, for 
nothing came of his visit 
but a little money, a lit- 
tle fame, and the rest- 
less, unhappy feeling that 
there was a world of in- 
tellect, of cultivation, of 
association with the 
most brilliant men of his 
country, and that he was 
shut out from this by nothing but the want of money. 
He was not strong enough to put the thought away from 
him. He had one more winter in Edinburgh ; but while 
there was quite as much admiration of his poems, the 
novelty was gone, and the lovers of novelty were not so 
attentive. Burns made no complaint. He secured a 
position as an excise man, rented a little farm, married 
Jean Armour, and set out to live on his small income. 
Scotland's poet was disciplining smugglers, working on 
a farm, and incidentally writing such poems as Tarn 
O Shanter, Bannockbum, and The Banks Doon. 

The farm was not a success, and he moved to a tiny 




ROBERT BURNS 
1759-1796 



192 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1788-1796 

house in Dumfries. The years were hard. Burns's 
readiness to please and be pleased led him into what- 
ever company chose him, not the company which he 
should have chosen. He wrote to a friend that he was 
" making ballads, and then drinking and singing them." 
He was keenly sensitive to right and wrong, but lacked 
the power to choose the right and refuse the wrong. 
The end came very soon, for he was only thirty-seven 
when he died. 

119. Burns's most notable work. The songs of 
Burns have been sung wherever English is spoken. 
They are so simple and sincere that they go straight to 
the heart, so musical that they almost make their own 
songs of melody. Songs of such intense feeling as 
Burns. " My luve is like a red, red rose," of such ten- 
derness as "O wert thou in the cauld blast" cannot go 
out of fashion. Burns's tenderness is not for human 
beings alone, but for the tiny field mouse whose "wee 
bit housie " has been torn up by the plough, and whom 
he comforts, — 

But, Mousie, thou art no thy lane, 1 
In proving foresight may be vain: 
The best-laid schemes o' mice an' men 

Gang aft a-gley. 2 

Closely allied to his tenderness is his charity, a charity 
which is often delightfully combined with humor, as in 
his Address to the Deil, which closes, — 

But fare you weel, auld Nickie-ben ! 3 
O wad ye tak a thought an' men' ! 
Ye aiblins 4 might — I dinna ken — 
Still hae a stake. 5 



1 not alone. 2 go oft amiss. 3 A nickname of Satan. 
4 perhaps. 5 chance. 



1785-1790] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



193 



ter's Satur- 
day Night. 



Two of Burns's longer poems of contrasting character 
are, next to his songs, his most famous works, — Tam 
Shanter and The Cotter s Saturday Night. Tam 
The first is one of the most fascinating poems o'Shanter. 
ever written. The good-for-nothing Tam, the 1790 " 
long-suffering, scolding wife, the night at the inn where 
"ay the ale was growing better," the furious storm, 
Tarn's setting out for home " fou and unco happy," but 
with prudent glances over his shoulder " lest bogles 
catch him unawares," — these are all put before us, 
sometimes with a touch of humor, sometimes with up- 
roarious fun ; but always fascinating, always impossible 
to read without a smile. 

The second poem, The Cotters Saturday TheCot- 
Night, is a picture of the poet's own child- 
hood home on Saturday evening when — 1785. 

The elder bairns come drapping in, 
At service out, amang the farmers roun'. 

Everything is simple and homely. 

The mother, wi' her needle an' her sheers, 

Gars 1 auld claes 2 look amaist as weel 's the new ; 
The father mixes a' wi' admonition due. 

We can almost hear the knock of the bashful " neebor 
lad " who has come to call on the oldest daughter. We 
see them all sitting down to the porridge that forms 
their supper. We watch the gray-haired father as he 
takes the Bible, — 

And " Let us worship God ! " he says with solemn air. 

A Scotchman asked to read in public said, " Do not ask 
me to give The Cotter s Saturday Night. A man should 
read that on his knees as he would read his Bible." 
1 makes. 2 clothes. 



194 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [18th Cent. 



Love of his childhood's home, love of country, love of 
the right were in Burns's heart when he wrote — 

From scenes like these old Scotia's grandeur springs, 
That makes her lov'd at home, rever'd abroad. 

Princes and lords are but the breath of kings, 
" An honest man 's the noblest work of God." 

The eighteenth century began and ended with poetry, 
but it produced no poet of the first rank. It was the 
age of prose, and it is famous for essayists, novelists, 
writers on ethics and politics, and historians — a proud 
record for one short century. 



Century XVIII 



THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



Early prose writers : 
Joseph Addison. 
Richard Steele. 
Jonathan Swift. 



Artificial poet : 
Alexander Pope. 



Forerunner of the novelists : 
Daniel Defoe. 



Writers on ethics and politics : 
Samuel Johnson. 
Edmund Burke. 



Novelists : 

Samuel Richardson. 

Henry Fielding. 

Tobias Smollett. 

Laurence Sterne. 

Oliver Goldsmith (romantic 



Historians : 

William Robertson. 
David Hume. 
Edward Gibbon. 



Romantic poets : 
Thomas Gray. 



poet). 



Oliver Goldsmith. 



Robert Burns. 



SUMMARY 



Coffee houses became important factors in literature. 
Pope was the greatest poet of the first half of the century. 
His influence for correctness, conciseness, and clearness has 



i8thCent.] THE CENTURY OF PROSE 



195 



never ceased to affect literature. Even his metre, the heroic 
couplet, prevailed for many years. 

The best prose writers of the early part of the century 
were : — 

1. Addison, who won political success by a couplet. 

2. Steele, who founded the Tatler, These two men wrote 
the best parts of the Tatler, the Spectator, famous for the Sir 
Roger de Coverley papers, and the Guardian ; and this was the 
beginning of periodical literature. 

3. Swift, the many-sided, was famous for his bitter satire, 
and the warmth of his friendship. His best known book is 
Gulliver 's Travels. 

Defoe, too, was a many-sided man. His satire was written 
with such apparent sincerity that it was more than once taken 
in earnest. His best work is Robinson Crusoe. 

The Age of Queen Anne as a whole was marked by the 
development of literary criticism, by the excellence of its 
prose, and by the beginning of the periodical. 

In 1740 prose discovered a new field, the novel. The first, 
Pamela, was written by Richardson. This was followed 
by Fielding's Joseph Andrews, Smollett 1 s Roderick Random, 
Sterne's Tristram Shandy, and many others. 
. Between 1750 and 1780 the chief place of honor was held 
by a man of powerful intellect, Johnson, who wrote Lives of 
the Poets and many other works, compiled a dictionary, put 
an end to "patronage " in literature, was famous for his con- 
versational ability, and was the literary oracle of his day. 
His life was written by his admirer Boswell. 

One of Johnson's special friends was Oliver Goldsmith, to 
whom the writing of children's books, history, novels, poetry, 
and plays was equally easy and the results almost equally 
excellent. 

The period was also marked by the eloquence of Edmund 
Burke, and by the work of three historians : Robertson, who 
wrote of Scotland, Germany, and America ; Hume, who wrote 
of England ; and Gibbon, who wrote of the Roman Em- 
pire. 



196 ENGLAND'S. LITERATURE [18th Cent. 

The "romantic revival," a revolt against the artificial for- 
mality of Pope, was increasing in power. It was marked by 
three qualities : interest in man as man, love of nature, inde- 
pendence of thought. This revolt was apparent in Gray's 
Elegy and in Goldsmith's poems, was strengthened by the 
appearance of Percy's Reliques, and was carried on by the 
works of Cowper ; but its best manifestation was in the writ- 
ings of Burns, who is famous for poems of such contrasting 
character as his songs, Tarn O'Shanter, and The Cotter's Sat- 
urday Night. 

The eighteenth century is famous for poets, essayists, nov- 
elists, writers on ethics and politics, and historians. 



CHAPTER VIII 



CENTURY XIX 

THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 

120. The " Lake Poets." The three qualities that 
were so clearly manifested in the poetry of Burns, 
namely, interest in man, love of nature, and impatience 
of restraint, become even 
more apparent in the writ- 
ings of the nineteenth 
century. Individuality in- 
creased. It is less easy to 
label writers as belonging 
to a certain " school." 
The three poets of the 
first of the century who 
are usually classed together 
as the " Lake School " have 
little in common except 
their friendship and the 
fact that they 'lived in the 
Lake Country. These 

three were William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Cole- 
ridge, and Robert Southey. 

When Wordsworth was twenty-one he went to France 
to study. Those were the Revolutionary days ; and the 
young student sided with the Girondists so vig- wniiam 
orously that he would surely have fallen into ^°^ s " 
political trouble if his friends had not stopped 1770-1850. 
his allowance in order to compel him to return. When 




WILLIAM WORDSWORTH 
1770-1850 



198 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1791-1798 



the Revolution became only a wild orgy of slaughter, he 
was disappointed and doubtful of everything ; but his 
beloved sister Dorothy came to live with him, and, as 
he said, gave him an exquisite regard for common things 
and preserved the poet in him. 

After three or four years of quiet country life, a bril- 
liant, sympathetic man became a visitor at the Words- 
samuei worth cottage. This was Coleridge. He was 
Coleridge. a man wno was interested in everything by 
1772-I834. turns. His brain was full of visions and 
schemes. He was in the army for a while. He planned 
to found a model republic on the Susquehanna. He 
was a wonderful talker on politics, philosophy, theology, 
poetry — whatever came uppermost. Together he and 
Wordsworth discussed what ideal poetry should be. 
Wordsworth believed that a poet should write on every- 
day subjects in everyday language. Coleridge believed 
that lofty or supernatural subjects might be so treated 
as to seem simple and real. 

121. Lyrical Ballads, 1798. The two men agreed 
to bring out a little book, Lyrical Ballads, and go to 
Germany with its proceeds ; and this was done. Cole- 
ridge's chief contribution to the volume was The Rime of 
The Rime the Ancient Mariner, that weird and marvellous 
AnSent ta ^ e °^ ^ e suffering that must follow an act not 
Mariner. in loving accord with nature. This poem is 
like the old ballads in its simplicity and directness, but 
very unlike them in the fulness of its harmony. Cole- 
ridge was a master of sound. Here is his sound picture 
of a brook : — 

A noise like of a hidden brook 
In the leafy month of June, 
That to the sleeping woods all night 
Singeth a quiet tune. 



T798] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 199 



The breaking up of the ice is thus described : — 

It cracked and growled, and roared and howled, 
Like noises in a swound. 

The similes of the poem are of the kind that not only 
adorn a statement but illuminate it ; the mariner passes, 
" like night," from land to land. The vessel in a calm is 

As idle as a painted ship 
Upon a painted ocean. 

Wordsworth's contributions to the book were many, 
and of widely differing value. When he remembered 
his theories, he was capable of such stuff as — 

But yet I guess that now and then 
With Betty all was not so well ; 
And to the road she turns her ears, 
And thence full many a sound she hears, 
Which she to Susan will not tell. 

Here, too, was his We are Seven. The treatment is 
quite as simple as in the preceding poem ; but while the 
first seems like the awkward attempt of a man Weare 
to be childlike, the simplicity of the second is seven, 
appropriate because the poem is a conversation with a 
child. In this same volume was the beautiful Tintern 
Tintem Abbey, wherein all theories were for- Abbey, 
gotten. It is hardly colloquial language when the author 
says, — 

The sounding cataract 
Haunted me like a passion; 

or when he bids — 

Therefore let the moon 
Shine on thee in thy solitary walks ; 
And let the misty mountain-wind be free 
To blow against thee. 

122. Robert Southey, 1774-1843. After their visit 
to Germany, both poets settled in the Lake Country. 



200 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1797-1813 

Near them was the home of the poet Southey, who had 
been one of Coleridge's converts to the Susquehanna 
scheme. 

These were the three who were best known as poets 
when the nineteenth century began. Southey wrote 
The curse weird, strange epics : The Curse of Kehama, a 
i8io hama ' Hindoo ta l e > an d Tkalaba, the story of a young 
Thaiaba. Arabian who sets out to avenge his father. 
1801, Southey was always attracted by the strange 
and distant ; and yet he took delight in the simplest 
things, and made the best of whatever came. In 18 13 
he was chosen Laureate ; but only a few years later he 
discovered that the public did not care for more poetry 
from him, and he said with the utmost composure, " I 
have done enough to be remembered among poets, though 
my proper place will be among the historians, if I live to 
complete the works upon yonder shelves." For twenty 
years longer Southey worked industriously on prose; He 
LifeofNei- wrote histories and biographies, an excellent 
son. 1813. iif e of Nelson among the latter. Here was his 
true field, for his prose is charmingly clear and sturdy ; 
and while making no apparent attempt at formal descrip- 
tion, he nevertheless contrives to leave a strongly out- 
lined picture in the mind of the reader. 

123. Coleridge's best work. Coleridge's best poetry 
was written about the time of the publication of Lyrical 
Christabei. Ballads. It was then that he composed Chris- 
1797-1800. tabel, the mystic tale of the innocent maiden 
who is enthralled by the power of magic. Then, too, he 
KuWa wrote the dazzling fragment, Kubla Khan, part 
Khan. of a poem which, he said, came to him while he 

1797 

slept. The rest of it was driven from his mem- 
ory by an interruption. Whatever Coleridge touched 
with his poetic gift was rich and splendid ; but nearly 



1797-1834] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 



201 



everything was incomplete. So it was in prose. No 
one can read a single page of his writings without real- 
izing that their author was a man of deep and original 
thought and of rarely equalled ability ; and yet incom- 
here, too, all was unfinished. Coleridge said pieteness. 
that he trembled at the thought of the question, " I gave 
thee so many talents ; what hast thou done with them ? " 




SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE 
1772-1834 



His excuse was a certain weakness of the will. This was 
increased by the use of opium, which he began to take 
to quiet pain, and which was for many years his tyrant. 
This great man, who influenced every one that heard 
him speak or that read his written words, was utterly 
without ability to command his own powers, to govern 
his own mind. He has left little save fragments, — but 
they are magnificent fragments. 



202 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1802-1830 



124. Wordsworth's life. Wordsworth's life was 
quite unlike that of Coleridge. He married in 1802, 
and, as he said, was "conscious of blessedness" in his 
marriage. ' A sum of money which had been due to his 
* father was at last paid to him, and he lived on happily 
and tranquilly in his beloved Lake Country, making 
many trips abroad or to different parts of the British 
Isles. He was a keen lover of beauty, but the beauty of 
nature rather than that of art. He fell asleep before the 
Venus de Medici, but he wrote one of his best sonnets 
on the beach at Calais. His finest poems were written 
during the early years of the century. 

Appreciation was slow in finding Wordsworth, partly 
because first Scott and then Byron were coming before 
the public, and there was nothing in Wordsworth's writ- 
siowappre- ings to arouse the wild enthusiasm with which 
words- * people welcomed their productions. Another 
worth. reason was that Wordsworth's utter lack of 
humor permitted him in pursuit of his theories to put 
absurd doggerel into poems that were otherwise fine. 
The critics ridiculed the doggerel and passed by what 
was really worthy. " Heed not such onset," the poet 
said to himself, and serenely continued to write. Slowly 
one after another began to see that no one else could 
describe the every-day sights of nature like Wordsworth, 
or could interpret so well the feelings that they aroused 
in one who loved them. Other poets could write of tem- 
pests and crags and precipices ; but Wordsworth alone 
could picture a " common day " and an " ordinary " 
landscape. He could do more than picture ; he could 
make the reader feel that in nature was a mysterious 
life, the thought of its Creator, half expressed and half 
revealed. Long before 1830 Scott had ceased to write 
poetry, Byron and Shelley and Keats were dead. Men 



1800-1842] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 203 



began to turn back a score of years, to see that in Words- 
worth's poems there was an excellence that q^ 6 on ^ e 
they had overlooked. They passed by the imbe- intimations 
cilities of Peter Bell, they read the charming talityt 
little daffodil poem, they began to appreciate 1806 - 
the grandeur of the Ode on the Intimations of Immor- 
tality with its magnificent sweep of poetry : — 

There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream, 
The earth, and every common sight, 
To me did seem 
Apparelled in celestial light, 
The glory and the freshness of a dream. 

Little by little Wordsworth's noble office was recog- 
nized, and he was known as the faithful interpreter of na- 
ture and of God in nature. In 1842 a complete edition 
of his works was called for. On the death of Southey 
during the following year, he was made Laureate with 
the good-will of all lovers of true poetry. 

Those first thirty years of the century were glorious 
times for literature. Besides the Lake Poets, there 
were the romantic writers, Scott and Byron ; the lovers 
of beauty, Shelley and Keats ; the essayists, Charles 
Lamb and De Quincey ; the magazine critics ; and the 
realist, Jane^ Austen. 

125. Waiter Scott, 1771-1832. The first that we 
know of Walter Scott, he was a little lame, sickly child 
who had been sent away from Edinburgh to his grand- 
father's farm in the hope that he might grow stronger. 
Fortunately for all that love a good story, this hope was 
realized, and it was not long before he was galloping 
wherever a pony could carry him and scrambling wher- 
ever the pony could not go. The two things that he 
liked best were this wild roaming over the country and 
listening to the old ballads and legends that his grand- 



204 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1799-1805 



Boyhood. 



mother recited to him by the score. When he was 
older, he was sent to school in Edinburgh. He 
was not the leader of his class by any means ; 
but out of school there was not a boy who would not 

gladly follow him to 
some wild, romantic 
spot to listen to his 
stories of the bor- 
der warfare. One day 
he came across a 
book half a century 
old which delighted 
his heart. It was 
Bishop Percy's Re- 
liques. This was hap- 
piness. The hungry 
schoolboy forgot his 
dinner and lay out 
under the trees read- 
ing over and over 
again of Douglas and 
Percy and Robin 
Hood and Sir Patrick 
Spens. . This book 
settled the question 
of what his life-work should be, though it was some years 
before he found his place. 

After leaving the university he studied law and was 
admitted to the bar. He married, held various public 
offices, and was financially comfortable. In 1799, when 
The Eve of ^ e was twenty-eight, ne ™ade his first appear- 
st. John. ance in literature with some translations from 
I800. German poetry. A little later he wrote a border 
ballad, The Eve of St. John. Great numbers of border 




SIR WALTER SCOTT 
177T-1832 



1808-1812] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL- 205 



ballads were still remembered, though they had never 
been put into print. Scott determined to collect these, 
and somewhat in the fashion of Fuller, he roamed over 
the country, taking down every scrap of the old balladry, 
every bit of legend that he could get from any one who 
chanced to remember the ancient lore. In 1802 he pub- 
lished Minstrelsy of the Scottish B order > and Mlnstrelsy 
in 1805, The Lay of the Last Minstrel. Then of the Scot- 
there was enthusiasm indeed. Men had wan- SSJ^Joa. 
dered into distant lands for the new, the The Lay of 
strange, the romantic ; but the Lay revealed Minstrel, 
their own country as its home. Here was a 1805, 
poem which was song, description, dialogue, legend, su- 
perstition, chivalry, every-day life, — and all blended into 
a story told by an ideal story-teller. Scott's listeners 
were as intent as those of his schooldays had been. 
There was no more thought of courts and law books. 
The teller of stories had found his place. He planned a 
romantic novel, but laid it aside. During the next three 
years he edited various works, and in the third year he 
published Marmion. Large sums of money Marmion< 
were comipg in from his poems and also from woa. 
the publishing business, in which he had engaged with 
some old school friends, and he was free to carry out his 
dearest wish, to buy the estate of Abbotsford and become 
one of the "landed gentry." 

126. Scott abandons poetry. In 181 2, the year of 
his removal to Abbotsford, Childe Harold, a brilliant 
poem in a new vein, came out, written by Lord Byron. 
The crowd had found a new idol, and Scott's next poem, 
published the following year, had much smaller sales 
than his previous works. Scott brought out another 
poem, but evidently the fickle public did not care for 
more of his poetry, and he began to think about the ro- 



206 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1814-1831 



mance which he had planned several years earlier. The 
waveriey. result of this thinking was that in 18 14 the 
1814, reading world went wild with delight over Wa- 
veriey, by an unknown writer ; for Scott, no one knows 
just why, did not wish to be known as its author. Story 
after story followed, — one, two, even three, in a single 
year. " Walter Scott is the only man in the land who 
could write them," was the general belief ; but the secret 
was kept for some time. * 

Scott was happy in his home. Abbotsford was the 
very hearthstone of Scotland for a joyous hospitality. 
'■ M Great folk and little folk, rich and poor, lords 

Abbotsford. . . , 

and ladies, scientific men, artists, authors, ad- 
mirers from across the sea, old school friends, relatives 
even to the twentieth degree — they were all welcomed 
to Abbotsford. Sir Walter — for George IV had made 
him a baronet — usually worked three or four hours be- 
fore breakfast, which was between nine and ten, and per- 
haps two hours afterwards ; but when noon had come, 
he was ready for any kind of amusement, provided it was 
out of doors, — a long walk or ride with his pet dogs, 
hunting or fishing, or whatever might suggest itself. 

It is a pity that this happy life should have been 
clouded; but in 1826 the publishers with whom Scott 
Failure of was connected failed. The romancer might 
publishers, easily have freed himself from all claims ; but 
instead he quietly set to work to pay with his pen the 
$650,000 that was due. Novels, histories, a nine-volume 
life of Bonaparte, editorial work, translations, were un- 
dertaken in rapid succession. Paralysis attacked him ; 
still he struggled on. In 1831 the government loaned 
him a frigate to carry him to Italy for rest and change. 

The might 

Of the whole world's good wishes with him goes, 



1807-1832] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 20J 



wrote Wordsworth ; but rest had come too late. In 1832 
he returned to Abbotsford, and there he died. "Time 
and I against any two," he had said bravely when he 
took the enormous debt upon himself. Time had failed 
him, but he had paid more than half, and the royalties 
on his books finally paid the rest. 

Scott's best work was his Scottish romances, wherein 
he aimed chiefly at telling a romantic story and laid the 
scene in the past in order to add to the roman- TheWstor- 
tic effect. In such stories as Kenilworth, how- ical novel - 
ever, he shows himself the real inventor of the historical 
novel, that fascinating combination of old and new, of 
customs and manners that are strange practised by men 
and women with loves and hates and instincts like our 
own. His power lies, first, in his knowledge of the past, 
a knowledge so full and so ready that of whatever age 
he wrote he seemed to be in his own time ; second, in 
his imagination, his ability to invent incidents and pic- 
ture scenes ; third, in his power of humorous perception 
and characterization, especially in Scottish characters. 
There have been more profound students than Scott, 
and there have been better makers of plots ; but no 
man, either before or after him, has ever combined such 
familiarity with the past and such ability to tell a story. 

127. Lord Byron, 1788-1824. George Gordon, Lord 
Byron, whose Childe Harold brought Scott's narrative 
poetry to an end, was the son of a worthless profligate 
and a mother who sometimes petted him, sometimes 
abused him, and was capable of flying into storms of 
anger at a moment's warning. He was so sensitive 
about his lameness that as a tiny child he struck Hoursof 
fiercely with his whip at a visitor who ventured idleness. 

1807 

to express some pity for him. When he was 

ten years of age, he became Lord Byron, and was so 



208 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1807-1818 



fond of alluding to his rank that the schoolboys called 
him "the old English baron." At nineteen he published 
English hi s fi rst book of poems, Hours of Idleness. It 

Bards and was on \y a boy's work, but the position of this 
Scotch Re- . , . . . , _ . 

viewers. boy made it conspicuous, and the Edinburgh 
1809. critics reviewed it sharply. Byron was angry, 
and two years later he blazed out with English Bards 
and Scotch Reviewers, wherein he not only attacked the 
reviewers, with his scornful couplet, — 

A man must serve his time to every trade 
Save censure — critics all are ready made, — 

but struck fiercely at his innocent fellow authors. Words- 
worth he pronounced an idiot, Coleridge the laureate of 
asses, Scott a maker of stale romance, and the mighty 
Jeffrey, writer of the article, he declared to be " the 
great literary anthropophagus." His own critical judg- 
ments were of small value, and he was afterwards exceed- 
ingly sorry for his foolish lines ; but evidently this boy 
was not to be suppressed even by the great folk of the 
Edinburgh Review. 

Byron went abroad, and in 18 12 he produced the first 
part of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage y and then, he 
CMide said, " I awoke one morning and found myself 
Pilgrimage f amous -" He continued to write. Scott's Lay 
1812-1818. of the Last Minstrel and Marmion began to 
seem tame when compared with the turbulent charac- 
ters and the novel manners of the East, where most of 
Byron's scenes were laid. England and the Continent 
bowed down before this new genius. He married, but 
soon his wife left him, giving no reason for her deser- 
tion. Public sympathy was with her, and Byron became 
a wanderer, tossing back to England poems of scorn and 
satire and affection and pathos ; sometimes living simply 



1813-1824] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 20g 



and quietly, sometimes sinking to the depths of dissipa- 
tion ; in his writings sometimes low and vulgar, but al- 
ways brilliant. He wrote wild, romantic tales TneBr ide 
in poetry, — The Bride of Abydos, The Corsair, ofAfcydos. 
and others ; he wrote equally wild and lurid TJie o or . 

dramas ; and, last of all, .Z><?/z yuan, the story sah - 1814 - 

3 Don Juan. 

of a vicious man and his life ; often revolting, 1819- 
but, as Scott said, containing "exquisite morsels 1824, 
of poetry." Byron was capable of tender sympathy 
with suffering and warm appreciation of heroism, as he 
shows in The Prisoner of Chillon; but, as a ThePris- 
general thing, there were but two subjects that ^mon 
interested him deeply, himself and nature. His 1816. 
poems have one and the same hero, a cynical young 
man, weary of life, scornful and melancholy. This is 
the poet's somewhat theatrical notion of himself. He 
once objected to a bust of himself on the ground that 
the expression was "not unhappy enough." There is 
nothing theatrical, however, about his love of nature 
when he writes such lines as — 

The big rain comes dancing to the earth. 
Oh, night 

And storm and darkness, ye are wondrous strong, 
Yet lovely in your strength. 

This stormy cynic could also write, and with most ex- 
quisite delicacy of touch, of a quiet summer evening : — 

It is the hush of night, and all between 

Thy margin and the mountains, dusk, yet clear, 

Mellow'd and mingling, yet distinctly seen, 

Save darken'd Jura, whose capt heights appear 

Precipitously steep; and drawing near, 

There breathes a living fragrance from the shore, 

Of flowers yet fresh with childhood ; on the ear 

Drops the light drip of the suspended oar, 

Or chirps the grasshopper one good-night carol more. 



2IO ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1792-1823 

In 1823 the Greeks were struggling to win their free- 
dom from the Turks. Byron determined to play a part 
in the war, and set out for Missolonghi. The misan- 
thropic poet suddenly became the practical commander ; 
but before he could take the field, he died of fever at the 
age of thirty-six. 

128. Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1792-1822. The works 
of two poets of this time, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John 
Keats, are so strongly marked by their love of beauty 
and their ability to express it as to separate them from 
the others. Shelley's whole life was a revolt against 
restraint. After five months at Oxford he wrote a pam- 
phlet against the Christian religion, and was promptly 
expelled. At nineteen he married a young girl, three 
years his junior, because he thought she was tyran- 
nized over in being required to obey the rules of her 
school. 

Shelley loved the world, and he longed to have all 
things pure and beautiful ; but he fancied that the one 
change needed to bring about this state of purity and 
beauty was to abolish the laws- and the religion in which 
men believed. It is hard for ordinary mortals to under- 
stand his way of looking at matters ; but those who 
Prometheus knew him best were convinced of his honesty, 
unbound. Prometheus Unbound is one of his best long 

1820 

"poems. He pictures the hero as rebelling 
against the gods, indeed, but as loving man. The longer 
mx. «, » works are very beautiful, but there are three 

The Cloud. J ' 

or four of his shorter poems that every one 
loves. One is The Cloud, beginning, — 

I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, 

From the seas and the streams ; 
I bring light shade for the leaves when laid 

In their noonday dreams. 



1819-1822] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 211 

Another favorite is his Ode to the West 
and yet another is To a Skylark : — 

Hail to thee, blithe spirit — 

Bird thou never wert — 
That from heaven or near it 

Pourest thy full heart 
In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. 

There is a wonderful upspringing in this poem ; it 
hardly seems to touch the ground, but to be made of 
light and music. In even so earthly a simile as his com- 
parison between the lark and a glow-worm, he lightens 
and lifts it by a single word : — 

Like a glow-worm golden 

In a dell of dew, 
Scattering unbeholden 

Its aerial hue 

Among the flowers and grass which screen it from the view. 

Another simile which surely would never have come to 
the mind of any one but Shelley, or perhaps Donne, was, 

Like a poet hidden 

In the light of thought, 
Singing hymns unbidden, 

Till the world is wrought 
To sympathy with hopes and fears it heeded not. 

Shelley was drowned while yachting in the Bay of 
Spezzia. The quarantine law required that his body 
should be burned, and this was done in the presence of 
Byron and two other friends. His ashes were laid in the 
little Protestant burying-ground at Rome, not far from 
Keats, who had died only a year before. It was in grief 
for the loss of Keats that he had written his lament, 
Adonais, in which he had said of the poet, — 

Peace, peace ! he is not dead, he doth not sleep ! 
He hath awakened from the dream of life. 



Windy Ode to the 
West Wind. 
To a Sky- 
lark. 



212 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1795-1821 

A little volume of Keats's poems was with Shelley on 
the yacht and was washed up with his body. 

129. John Keats, 1795-1821. For Keats life was 
not easy, though he had nothing in him of revolt against 
the established order of things. At school he was a 
great favorite and also a great fighter. A small thing 
made him happy and a small thing made him miserable. 




JOHN KEATS 
I795-I82I 



At fifteen he was apprenticed to a London surgeon ; 
but long before then he had begun to dream golden 
dreams of what had been when the world was younger. 
His inspiration came from the past, from the Middle 
Ages as drawn by Spenser, and from the graceful fan- 
cies and depths of the Greek mythology. 



1818-1821] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 213 



In 18 1 8, when he was twenty-three years of age, 
Keats published his Endymion. It was sav- unaymion. 
agely criticised by the Quarterly Review and 1818 - 
Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine, but the young poet 
was not to be suppressed. He made no bitter reply, 
as Byron had done, but he quietly wrote on, and two 
years later published some of his best work. 

J r Eve of St. 

Here were The Eve of St. Agnes, Lamia, and Agnes, La- 
others of his longer poems, absolutely over- mia " 1820 ' 
flowing with beauty and glowing with light and color : — 

Rose-bloom fell on her hands, together prest, 
And on her silver cross soft amethyst, 
And on her hair a glory like a saint. 

If all Keats's poems but one were to be destroyed, 
most of those who love him would choose the , 
Ode to a Grecian Urn to be saved. This poem Grecian 
is silver-clear, there is not a touch of color. Urn ' 1819, 
About the urn is a graceful course of youths and maid- 
ens and gods with pipes and timbrels and leafy boughs. 
The poet writes : — 

Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard 

Are sweeter ; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on ; 
Not to the sensual ear, but, more endeared, 

Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone ; 
Fair youth, beneath the trees, thou canst not leave 
Thy song, nor ever can those trees be bare ; 
Bold Lover, never, never oanst thou kiss, 
Though winning near the goal — yet, do not grieve ; 
She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss, 



Keats was only twenty-four when he died, in Italy, 
where he had gone in the hope of saving his life. His 
ideals were so high that he felt as if what he had done 
was nothing. " If I should die," he said, " I have left 



214 ENGLAND'S LITERATUR [1775-1834 

no immortal work behind me;" but the lovers of poetry 
have thought otherwise and have ranked him among the 
first of those who have loved beauty and have created it. 

130. Charles Lamb, 1775-1834. While Keats and 
Shelley were in Italy, while Byron and Scott were at the 
height of their literary glory, while Wordsworth and 
Southey and Coleridge were revelling in the beauties of 
the Lake Country, Charles Lamb, the most charming of 
essayists, was adding and subtracting at his desk in the 
East India House, until, as he said, the wood had entered 
into his soul. 

When Lamb was a little boy, he was sent to the Blue- 
Coat School. He longed to go on to the university, but 
his aid was needed at home. A few years later his sis- 
ter Mary, in a sudden attack of insanity, killed her mo- 
ther. The young man of twenty-one, with some literary 
ambition and a keen appetite for enjoyment, bravely laid 
aside his own wishes, reckoned up his little income of 
£120 a year, and took upon him the care of his father 
and his sister: Mary Lamb recovered, but as the years 
went on, attacks came with increasing frequency. Yet 
it was not, save for this constant dread, an unhappy life 
for either of them. There was never money enough for 
thoughtless expenditure, but there was enough for their 
Lamb's simple way of living. Their circle of friends 
friends. widened ; and what a company' it was that used 
to meet in those little brown rooms ! There were 
Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Leigh Hunt, De Quin- 
cey, and others without number. There was the sister 
Mary in her gray silk gown and white muslin kerchief 
and quaintly frilled cap. Every one of that brilliant 
company respected and admired her, valued her opinion, 
and never failed of her sympathy. In the midst of them 
all was Charles Lamb, seeing nothing but good in every 



1796-1807] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 215 

one of them, often pouring out the wildest fun, but al- 
ways mindful of his sister, lest too eager a discussion or 
a jest too many might lead on to an attack of insanity. 
It was when she was "ill," as he tenderly phrased it, 
that he planned to dedicate to her his little volume of 




CHARLES LAMB 

i775- l8 34 



poems, because, as he said, people living together "get 
a sort of indifference in the expression of kindness for 
each other." 

The best of his time and strength went to the endless 
adding and subtracting, but the .evenings were often 
given to writing, so far as the friends would permit. " I 



2l6 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1797-1833 

am never C. L," Lamb groaned half in jest and half in 
earnest, "but always C. L. and Co." Yet in the work 
done in these fragments of his life he has left us a rich 
legacy. For ten years, from 1797 to 1807, his pen at- 
The Old tempted all sorts of things. He wrote several 
Faces!" poems, among them The Old Familiar Faces, 
1798. w ith its depth of tender affection and longing ; 
and Hester, most graceful of all memorials. He wrote a 
Hester story or two ; he was actually under agreement 
written to provide six witty paragraphs a day for one 
of the papers ; he wrote prologues and epi- 
logues for his friends' plays, and finally he wrote a play 
of his own. It was acted ; but it was such an evident 
failure that the author himself, sitting far up in front, 
hissed it louder than any one else. 

In 1807, the Tales from Shakespeare came out, and 
that was a success. Mary wrote the comedies and 
Tales from Charles the tragedies, " groaning all the while," 
speare" ^is sister said, " and saying he can make no- 
1807. thing of it, which he always says till he has fin- 
ished, and then he finds out he has made something of it." 

During the following year he published Specimens of 

Dramatic Poets Contemporary with Shakespeare. Here 

- , he gives, as he says, " sometimes a scene, some- 
Specimens & 1 

of Dramatic times a song, a speech, or a passage, or a poeti- 

temporary ca -l image, as they happened to strike me," — 

™ th and to know how they struck the mind of 

Shake- J 

speare. Charles Lamb is the delightful part of it, for 
no one else has ever gone so directly to the 

heart of a play as this unassuming clerk of the East In- 
dia House — and then he talks a little in a 

Essays of 

Ella. 1822- friendly, informal way. His crowning work is 
Essays. LaS the Essays of Elia, short, delightful little chats 
1833. about whatever came into his mind. He writes 



1825-1859] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 2iy 



about the Blue-Coat School in the days of his boyhood, 
about Witches and Other Night Fears ; he muses about 
Dream Children; he complains whimsically of the De- 
cay of Beggars in the Metropolis ; he presents with a 
merry mockery of profound learning a grave Dissertation 
upon .Roast Pig ; and describes with pathetic humor the 
feelings of The Superannuated Man who after many 
years of faithful work is given a pension by his employ- 
ers, and is at liberty to live his own life. This was a 
page from Lamb's experience, for in 1825 his employers 
gave him a generous pension, and at last he was. free. 
This is what he says of his freedom : — 

"I have indeed lived nominally fifty years, but deduct 
out of them the hours which I have lived to other peo- 
ple, and not to myself, and you will find me still 
a young fellow. For that is the only true Time, 
which a man can properly call his own — that which he 
has all to himself ; the rest, though in some sense he 
may be said to live it, is other people's Time, not his. 
The remnant of my poor days, long or short, is at least 
multiplied for me threefold. My ten next years, if I 
stretch so far, will be as long as any preceding thirty. 
'T is a fair rule-of -three sum. ... I have worked task- 
work and have all the rest of the day to myself." The 
" rest of the day " was short, for after only nine years of 
freedom, the most genial, delicate, charming of humor- 
ists passed away. 

131. Thomas De Quincey, 1785-1859. "Charming " 
is the word that best describes the essays of Charles 
Lamb, but "fascinating" ought always to be saved for 
those of Thomas De Quincey. The man himself is in- 
tensely interesting. As a boy he was a great favorite 
with the other boys because of his never-failing good- 
nature and his willingness to help them with their les- 



218 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1800-1821 



sons ; and with the teachers because he was such a 
brilliant scholar. When he was fifteen, he could chatter 
away in Greek as easily as in English. Two years later 
he went on a ramble to Wales, then slipped away to 
London, and came near dying of starvation. After being 
at Oxford, he visited Wordsworth. They became friends 
and were neighbors for twenty-seven years. Whoever 
met De Quincey was delighted with him. To the Words- 
worth children he was their beloved " Kinsey," and he 
was equally dear to John Wilson, who was to become 
the great "Christopher North" of Blackwood 's Maga- 
zine. He was always ready to join in any light chat, but 
if left to himself, he had a fashion of gliding away in 
his talk to all sorts of profound and mysterious themes 
which only he knew how to make delightful. 

During those years in the Lake Country too great 
generosity and the failures of others had lessened his 
First m- little fortune. He had a wife and children to 
erarywork. support, and he began to write for the maga- 
zines ; he even edited a local newspaper at a salary of 
one guinea a week. In 1821 he went to London. He 
was thirty-six years old, older than Byron or Shelley or 
Keats had been when their fame was secure ; but with 
De Quincey there had been for seventeen years an 
enemy at court in the shape of opium, which among 
other effects weakened his will so that only the pres- 
sure of necessity could drive him to action. The neces- 
sity had come. Charles Lamb was writing his essays 
for the London Magazine, and he introduced De Quin- 
cey to the editors. Not long after this introduction the 
confessions readers of the Magazine were deeply interested 
iisn*op?um- ky an article called Confessions of an English 
Eater.1821. Opium-Eater. It might well arouse interest, for 
it was a thrilling account of the experiences that come 



1821-1837] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 219 



from the use of opium. It sounded so honest that the 
critics were half decided that it must be a work of im- 
agination. This was the real beginning of the one hun- 
dred and fifty magazine articles written by De Quincey. 
Sorrows came upon him. His wife and two of his 




THOMAS DE QUINCEY 
1785-1859 



sons died, and he was helpless. In all practical matters 
he was the most ignorant of men. With a large De Quin _ 
draft in his pocket, he once lived for a number cey's heip- 
of days in the cheapest lodgings he could find, 
because he did not know that the draft, payable in 



220 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1827-1837 



twenty-one days, could be cashed at once. Now with six 
motherless children, he was more of a child than any of 
them. His oldest daughter quietly planned for him to 
have a home at Lasswade, near Edinburgh, and there he 
was loved and cared for. Caring for this gentle, erratic 
man must have been somewhat of a " worriment," for he 
was quite capable of slipping out in the evening for a 
walk, lying down under a tree or a hedge, and sleeping 
calmly all night long. His books and papers accumu- 
lated like drifts in a snowstorm, and only his daughter's 
gentle control prevented him from filling room after 
room with them, and so driving the family out of doors. 

Two of his best-known essays are The Flight of a 
Tartar Tribe and Mitrder Considered as One of the Fine 
The Flight Arts. The inspiration of the first seems to have 
Tribe 1 " 1 " been a few sentences in a missionary report. 
1837. From these and his own wide reading, he made 
the flight of the Tartars across Asia as vivid as any 
actual journey of his readers. The second essay is writ- 
ten with a delightful air of mock gravity, and with verify- 
ing quotations from various languages. He declares his 
Murder ^ rm belief " that any man who deals in murder, 
Considered must have very incorrect ways of thinking, and 
the°Fine f truly inaccurate . principles." In a later article 
Arts - he carries his jest further and declares that "If 

1827. 

once a man indulges himself in murder, very 
soon he comes to think little of robbing ; and from rob- 
bing he comes next to drinking and Sabbath-breaking, 
and from that to incivility and procrastination. Once 
begin upon this downward path, you never know *wh ere 
you are to stop. Many a man has dated his ruin from 
some murder or other that perhaps he thought little of 
at the time." 

So De Quincey goes on. He can be dreamy and gentle, 



1802-1817] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 221 



strikingly vivid, or whimsical, or he can give a plain, 
straightforward narrative, and in every case adapt his 
style perfectly to the mood of the hour. His published 
works fill sixteen volumes, "full of brain from beginning 
to end." 

132. The Reviews. Almost all of De Quincey's 
work was done for some one of the magazines that were 
established in the first twenty years of the century. The 
earliest was the Edinburgh Review. It began in 1 802 with 
very decided principles. One was that articles must be 
written by men of standing ; second, that they must be 
paid for; third, that reviews and criticisms _ 

r ' Edinburgh 

should be absolutely independent. Francis Jef- Review, 
frey soon became its editor, and was its ruling 1802, 
spirit for a quarter of a century. This magazine was so 
strongly Whiggish in tone that an opposition Tory maga- 
zine, the Quarterly Review, was soon founded. „ _ , 

' ^ . Quarterly 

Then came Blackwood 's Magazine, whose great Review. 

man was' John Wilson, or " Christopher North." 1809, 
These periodicals were so partisan and so bent upon 
being "independent" that many authors, like Keats and 
Wordsworth, suffered most unfairly at their Black- 
hands ; but, however hard their reviews were 3 00ds - 

. . . . Magazine. 

for individual writers, they were certainly good 1817. 

for literature, for the very savageness of their criticism 
aroused discussion and interest in literary matters. 

133. Jane Austen, 1775-1817. In the midst of the 
poems and romances and essays and reviews, the novel 
of home life held a little place, but an important one. 
Immediately after the days of Richardson, Fielding, and 
Smollett, there was much story-writing, but these stories 
were generally romances. The best and almost the only 
real novels of the earliest years of the nineteenth cen- 
tury were written by a young girl named Jane Austen, 



222 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1811-1817 



who lived in a quiet village rectory. In 1796, when she 
was twenty-one, she wrote Pride and Prejudice, and 
Pride ana during the next few years several other works 
published followed. She kept her authorship a secret, 
1813. and, indeed, did not publish a book until 181 1, 
three years before the coming out of Waverley. 

In some ways, these novels of the beginning of the 
century are very different from those written at its end. 
For one thing, Miss Austen often tells in long conver- 
sations what in later books is expressed by a hint. Her 
pictures give the minutest details of thought and feeling 
Emma anc * act ^ on - ^ n Emma, for instance, it requires 
published several pages to make it clear that an elderly 
1816. gentleman is afraid of a drive through the snow, 
but finally decides to attempt it. The same character in 
a later novel would glance anxiously out of the window 
and order his carriage. Miss Austen had a keen but 
most delicate sense of humor. In her own line she was 
almost as much of a realist as Defoe. She has a fashion 
of choosing several characters so nearly alike 

JYL1SS JL11S™ 

ten's excel- that we feel sure she "can make nothing of 
lence. ft . » b ut j n h er bj ts f description and her 

long conversations characteristics come out amazingly 
well; and suddenly we realize that she "has made some- 
thing of it," that these monotonous people who seemed 
to have been created by the dozen have become thor- 
oughly real and individual and interesting. Miss Austen 
died in 18 17. The romantic poetry of Byron and what 
Scott called " the big bow-wow strain " of his own novels 
were filling the minds of readers, and it was not until 
long after her death that her work received the attention 
and admiration that it deserved. 

Occasionally in the history of literature we come to 
what seems a natural boundary. Such a boundary was 



1832] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 223 



reached in 1832. Before the close of that year, Byron, 
Shelley, Keats, and Scott were dead ; the literary work 
of Lamb and Coleridge was practically com- The year 
plete ; Wordsworth wrote little more that was of 1832 - 
value ; only De Quincey and Southey were still active. 
The condition of the country was rapidly changing. In 
political history, too, 1832 was a natural boundary, for in 
that year a Reform Bill was passed, giving for the first 
time to many thousand people in England the right to 
be represented in Parliament. Education became more 
general, not only the education of schools, but that of 
books and papers. Books became cheaper, the circula- 
tion of papers increased. Cheap magazines were estab- 
lished. Scientific discoveries and inventions overthrew 
former ways of living and working and forced people to 
think, whether they would or not. The audience makes 
the author, and the author makes the audience. The 
half-century following 1832 was. to see — among other 
marks of literary progress — a remarkable development 
of the novel, the essay, and the poem. 

The three novelists of the Victorian Age whose writ- 
ings are looked upon as modern classics are Charles 
Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and Mary Ann 
Evans Cross, or " George Eliot." 

134. Charles Dickens, 1812-1870. The first nine 
years of Charles Dickens's life were very happy ; but 
his father's salary was cut down, and before long he was 
imprisoned for debt. The rest of the family established 
themselves in the prison, and there the little boy spent 
his Sundays. Through the week he was left to work 
all day in a cellar and spend his nights in an attic. It is 
no wonder that throughout his life he had deep sym- 
pathy for lonely children. After a while came a few 
years of prosperity, and the boy was sent to school. 



224 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 




[1829-I85O 

His father became a parliamentary reporter for one of 
the papers; and when Charles was seventeen, he set out 
to learn shorthand. He was wise enough to realize that 
a good reporter must know much more than shorthand ; 

and he read, read hard 
w hour after hour, when- 

ever he had the hours. 

There were two 
things that the young 
man liked to do better 
than all else. One 
was to act and the 
other was to write ; 
and one day he was 
too happy to keep the 
tears from his eyes, 
for the Monthly Maga- 
zine had published a 
paper of his, known 
afterwards as Mr. 
Minns and his Cousin 
in Sketches by Boz. "Boz" was his little sister's pronun- 
ciation of Moses, a nickname which Charles had given to 
his brother in memory of "Moses" in The Vicar of 
Wakefield. Other sketches followed. By and by they 
came out in book form. Then a publishing firm asked 
Pickwick if he would write a series of humorous articles. 

He agreed, and this was the origin of the 
Pickwick Papers. Dickens was now twenty- 
his fame and his bank account were increasing 
rapidly. The following year he wrote Oliver 
Twist, and his other novels appeared in quick 
succession. He edited several periodicals, he 
wrote sketches of travel, and in 1850 he published 



CHARLES DICKENS 
1812-1870 



1836- 
1837. 

five ; 



Oliver 
Twist. 
1838. 



1850] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 



225 



David Copperfield, the work that he loved best, and a 
book that those who love its author cannot help find- 
ing most pathetic in the pictures that it gives DavidCop . 
of his own younger days. For twenty years perfieia. 
longer his work went on. The public were 
more and more charmed with each story ; and well they 
might have been, for every page was sparkling with 
merriment or throbbing with a pathos that came so 
straight from the writer's own heart that it could not 
fail to move his readers. When his characters blunder, 
they blunder delightfully. When they are sad, we sym- 
pathize with them ; but when they are merry, then comes 
a full tide of rollicking fun that " doeth good like a 
medicine." 

Dickens never seemed happier than when he was 
acting in amateur theatricals. This taste is evident in 
his novels. They often lack the drama's completeness 
of plot, but many of the characters have a touch of 
" make-up " which sometimes gives the reader a sense 
of their unreality, a feeling that they are figures on a 
stage rather than real men and women. Moreover, 
Dickens almost always fixes upon some special trick of 
expression or some one prominent quality, and by it he 
labels the character. Uriah Heep is always Method of 
"'umble," Mr. Micawber is always "waiting caricature, 
for something to turn up." This is not character draw- 
ing ; it is caricature. Nevertheless, no one who reads 
Dickens can help being grateful to the man whose work 
not only gives us amusement but is all aglow with good 
will and kindliness. 

Dickens was an intense and constant worker. " I am 
become incapable of rest," he said. Not only Dickensas 
did he do a vast amount of work, but he threw a worker, 
his whole self into every book. Little Nell was so real 



226 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1811-1848 



to her creator that after writing of her death, he walked 
the streets of London all night, feeling as if he had 
really lost a beloved child friend. Long lives do not go 
with such work as this, and Dickens died, almost at his 
desk, at the age of fifty-eight. 

135. William Makepeace Thackeray, 1811-1863. 
In 1836, when Dickens had just begun the Pickwick 
Papers, the artist who was to illustrate them died, and a 
young man offered himself as a substitute, but was not 
accepted. This was William Makepeace Thackeray, who 
was to be counted as one of the three great novelists of 
the Victorian Age. His early life was unlike that of 
Dickens, for, born in India, he was sent to England to 
be educated, and had all the advantages of school and 
university. Just what he should do with himself was 
not easy to decide ; but he had artistic ability and he 
concluded to study art. About the time when he came 
to the decision that he had not the talent to be as great 
an artist as he had hoped, his fortune was lost. Then 
he began to contribute to several magazines ; and as if 
laughing at himself for having even thought of being a 
famous artist, he signed his articles "Michael Angelo 
Titmarsh." 

Thackeray's fame was of slower growth than Dick- 
ens's. People read his Great Hoggarty Diamond in 
The Great Fraser s Magazine and his Book of Snobs in 
Hoggarty p unc h ; they were amused and interested, but 

Diamond. > J . . . 

1841. they did not lie awake nights longing for the 
ofSnoo? next number. Publishers did not contend wildly 
1848. for his manuscripts, and he was sometimes 
asked to shorten those that he presented. Dickens had 
an unfailing good nature and cheerfulness and a healthy 
confidence in himself almost from the first that swept 
his readers along with him. Thackeray was not so 



1847-1848] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 227 

cheery, and he was not quite so sure of himself or of 
his audience. Again, people like to be amused. When 
Dickens made fun of his characters, he laughed at them 
with the utmost frankness, and every one laughed with 
him. When Thackeray disapproved, he wrote satiri- 
cally ; and satire is not so easy to see and not so amus- 
ing to every one as open ridicule. Dickens's pathos, 
too, was much more marked than Thackeray's. For 
these reasons Thackeray's fame grew slowly VanityFalr 
In 1 847-1 848 he wrote Vanity Fair. Now 1847- 
Thackeray greatly admired Fielding, and oddly 1848, 
enough, this book had somewhat the same relation to 
Dickens's novels that 
Fielding's Joseph An- 
drews had to Pamela. 
Dickens always had 
heroes and heroines, 
and they were always 
good. They might be 
thrown among wicked 
people, but they were 
never led astray by bad 
company. Thackeray 
declared that Vanity 
Fair had no hero. Its 
heroine, Becky Sharp, 
is distinctly bad. Her 
badness and clever- 
ness stand out in 
bolder relief from con- 
trast with Amelia's goodness and dulness. The book is 
a satire on social life, but it is a kindly satire. Like 
Shakespeare, Thackeray has charity for every one ; and 
even in the case of Becky, he does not fail to let us see 




WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY 
18H-1863 



228 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1820-1855 



how much circumstances have done to make her what 
she is. 

Besides novels Thackeray also wrote lectures on The 
English Humourists and on The Four Georges. He wrote 
Henry Es- some merry burlesques, one on Ivanhoe called 
JfUS?" Rebecca and Rowena, wherein Rowena marries 

1852. \ 

The New- Ivanhoe but makes him wretched by her jeal- 
1854- ousy of Rebecca. His best novel is Henry 
1855. Esmond, a historical romance of the eighteenth 
century ; but in The Newcomes is the character that 
comes nearest to every, one's heart, the dear old Colonel 
who loses his fortune and is obliged to live on the char- 
ity of the Brotherhood of the Gray Friars. If Thack- 
eray had written nothing else, his picturing of the ex- 
quisite simplicity and self-respecting dignity with which 
Colonel Newcome accepts the only life that is open 
to him, would have been enough to prove his genius. 
This is the way he describes the Colonel's death : — 

" Just as the last bell struck, a peculiar sweet smile 
shone over his face, and he lifted up his head a little, 
and quickly said ' Adsum ' and fell back. It was the 
word we used at school when names were called ; and, 
lo, he whose heart was as that of a little child had an- 
swered to his name, and stood in the presence of his 
Maker." 

136. "George Eliot," 1820-1881. Mary Ann Evans 
Cross, much better known as " George Eliot," was only 
a few years younger than Dickens and Thackeray ; but 
the mass of their work was done before she wrote her 
earliest novel. Her first thirty-two years were spent in 
Shakespeare's country of Warwickshire. She was al- 
ways a student ; and, although she left school at sixteen, 
she went on with French and German and music. She 
also studied Greek and Hebrew. When she was twenty- 



1851-1872] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 229 

seven years old she translated a German work. This 
was so well done that it brought her much Transia- 
praise. She began to write essays, and in 185 1 tion " 
she left the house that had been made lonely by the 
death of her father and went to London as assistant edi- 
tor of the Westminster Review. It was six years longer 
before she attempted fiction ; and even then the attempt 
was not an idea of her own. She felt very doubtful of 
her ability to succeed, and probably hesitated longer 
about sending her Scenes from Clerical Life to scenes 
Blackwood 's than about forwarding her first J^Lif"" 
essay to a publisher. She could hardly be- 18 57. 
lieve her own eyes when she read the admiring notices 
that appeared from all directions. There was no ques- 
tion that she was no longer to be a writer of essays, but 
of novels ; and two years later Adam Bede came out. 
Then there was not only increased admiration but a 
curiosity that was determined to be gratified, for no one 
knew who was the author of either book. Carlyle was 
convinced that it was a man, but Dickens was one of 
the first to believe that it was a woman. Her • „, 

The Mill on 

next volume, The Mill on the Floss, tells us the Floss, 
much of her life as a child. Not at* all like 1860 ' 
Maggie of the Mill is the little heroine of her following 
book, Silas Mamer, the story of a miser who siias Mar- 
is brought back to love and happiness by the ner - 1861 - 
tiny golden-haired child who made her way into his 
lonely cottage. 

George Eliot wrote no more books about her child- 
hood, and we never again come as near her R 0mo i a . 
own life as in The Mill on the Floss. She 1863 - 

1 • • 1 1 7-. 7 Middle- 

wrote now a historical novel, Romola ; now a march. 

story of English life, Middlemarch, and other 

works. In one way her novels may be said to have the 



230 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1800-1859 

same theme ; the chief character longs for a nobler and 
better life than he has, and at last, after many efforts, 
he finds it. He who does wrong is punished ; but with 
all her exactness of justice, she never fails to make us 
see that the temptations to which one yields are real 
to him, however feeble they may be to others. " When 
I had finished it," said Mrs. Carlyle of Adam Bede, " I 
found myself in charity with the whole human race." 
George Eliot's characters grow. Scott's Ivanhoe and 
Rebecca and Rowena are exactly the same at the end 
of the book as at the beginning ; but Maggie Tulliver 
and Adam and Silas are altered by years and events. 
We must admit that her later novels have less freshness 
and beauty and humor than the earlier ; but the novelist 
who pictures even one phase of human life as exactly, 
as thoughtfully, and as sympathetically as George Eliot 
must ever be counted among the greatest, 

137. Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1800-1859. 
The most prominent essayists between 1832 and 1900 
were Macaulay, Carlyle, Ruskin, and Arnold. 

Thomas Babington Macaulay must have been as inter- 
esting when a small boy as he was when a man. He was 
hardly more than a baby when he read anything and 
everything, and his memory was so amazing that he 
could repeat verbatim whatever he had read. He was 
the busiest of children ; for before he was eight, he had 
written an epitome of general history, and an 
Precocity. essa y on Christian religion which he hoped 
would convert the heathen, besides epics, hymns, and 
various other poems. He was always able to talk in 
grown-up fashion. The story is told that when he was 
only four years of age, some hot tea was spilled over 
his legs. After various remedies had been applied, he 
was asked if he felt better. "Thank you, madam," the 



1804-1825] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 231 



little fellow replied gravely, "the agony is abated." 
The great charm of the wonderful boy was that he 
never seemed to notice that he was any brighter than 
other boys. He fan- 
cied that older peo- 
ple knew everything, 
and was inclined to 
feel humble because 
he did not know 
more. He had de- 
lightful rambles with 
the other children 
over a great common 
broken by ponds and 
bushes and hillocks 
and gravel pits, for 
every one of which 
he had a name and a 
legend. To go away 
to school and leave 
all these good times 
and his eight brothers and sisters was a severe trial, 
and he begged most piteously to come home for just one 
day before the vacation. 

As he grew older, he no longer learned by heart with- 
out the least effort ; but even then, a man who could 
recite the whole of Pilgrim s Progress and Hls 
Paradise Lost had small reason to complain of memory, 
a poor memory, and he seemed to read books by simply 
turning the pages. After taking his degree, he studied 

law, wrote a few articles for the magazines, and „ 

■ Essay on 

in 1825, when he was just twenty-five years of Milton. 

age, published in the Edinburgh Review his 

Essay on Milton. Before the next number of the Review 




LORD MACAULAY 
1800-1859 



232 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1825-1856 



was out, the young contributor was a famous man. He 
had done something that no one else had succeeded in 
doing ; he had written in a style that was not only clear 
and strong and interesting, but was brilliant. Every 
sentence seemed to be the crystallization of a thought. 
Every* sentence was so closely connected with what pre- 
ceded it that the reader could almost feel that he was 
thinking along with the writer and that his own thoughts 
were being put into words. . ,. 

Just as in Addison's day, each political party was on 
the watch for young men of literary talent, and Macaulay 
soon had an opportunity to enter Parliament. 

In politics. . r w 1 

A few years later he was given a government 
position in India with a salary that enabled him to return 
within three years with means sufficient to justify him 
in devoting himself to literature. Through the years 
between the publication of his Essay on Milton and 
1849, his literary fame was on the increase. He wrote 
a most valuable work on Indian law, he wrote a number 
of essays, the famous ones on Johnson and on Warren 
Hastings among them. He wrote his spirited Lays 
Lays of of Ancient Rome, and he read, read English, 
Rome 111 Greek, Latin, but especially English history ; 
1842. for he had planned. no less a work than a his- 
tory of England from 1688 to the French Revolution. 
In 1848 his first volume came out, and then Macaulay 
learned what popularity meant. Novels were forgotten, 
History of for every one was reading the History of Eng' 
England. land. Edition after edition was issued. Within 

1848- 

1860. a few weeks after its publication in England, 
six different editions were published in the United 
States, and one firm alone sold 40,000 copies. As 
other volumes followed, the sales became even greater. 
In 1856, his publishers gave him a check for ^20,000, 



1795-1856] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 233 



"part of what will be due me in December," he wrote 
in his journal. Brilliant as the work is, it is severely 
criticised, for Macaulay was too intense in his feelings 
|ind too " cock-sure of everything," as was said of him, 
to be impartial ; but it is a wonderful succession of the 
most vivid pictures and as interesting as a romance. 
Honors came to him thick and fast, and soon the queen 
raised him to the peerage. He worked away indus- 
triously, hoping to complete his history ; but before the 
fifth volume had come to its end he died, sitting at his 
library table before an open book. 

138. Thomas Carlyle, 1795-1881. Never were four 
writers more unlike than our four essayists ; and the 
second, Thomas Carlyle, was unlike everybody else ; he 
was in a class by himself. His father was a Scotchman, 
a sensible, self-respecting stone mason who had high 
hopes for his eldest son. When the boy had entered the 
University of Edinburgh, the way seemed to lie open for 
him to become a clergyman ; but before the time came 
for him to take his degree, he decided that the pulpit 
was not the place for him. His friends must have felt 
a little out of patience, for he seemed to have 
no very definite idea of what he did want. 
After teaching a while, he concluded that he did not 
want that in any case, and set to work to win his living 
from the world by writing. The world gave no sign of 
caring particularly for what he wrote or for his transla- 
tions from the German ; and when he was thirty-one 
years of age, he seemed little further advanced on the 
road to literary glory than when he was twenty-five. In 
his thirty-first year he married Jane Welsh, a witty, 
clever young lady who was not without literary ability of 
her own. She had strong confidence in her husband's 
powers and a vast ambition for him to succeed. There 



234 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1833-1837 



was little income, and the only course seemed to be to 
go to her small farm of Craigenputtock ; and there they 
lived for six years a most lonely life. Out of the soli- 
Sartor tude and dreariness came Sartor Resartus^ 
Resartus. „ xhe Xailor Retailored." The foundation of 
1834. the book is the notion that as man is within 
clothes, so the thought of Goo! is within man and nature. 
The work did not meet a warm reception. " When is 
that stupid series of articles by the crazy tailor going 
to end ? " asked one of the subscribers to Frasers, the 
magazine in which it was published ; and many people 
agreed with him, for while the pages were glowing with 
poetical feeling and sparkling with satire, the style was 
harsh and jagged and exasperating. Carlyle manufac- 
tured new words, and he used old ones in a fashion that 
seemed to his readers unpardonably ridiculous. It was 
very slowly that one after another found that the book 
had a message, a ringing cry to " Work while it is called 
To-day," and that its earnestness of purpose was arous- 
ing courage and breathing inspiration. 

Carlyle decided that it was best for him to live in 
London, and in 1834 Craigenputtock was abandoned. 
History of Three years later, his History of the French 
Revolution Revolution was published, — not a clear story 
1837. by any means, but a series of flashlight pic- 
tures, so vivid and realistic that at last recognition came 
to him. For nearly thirty years he continued to write. 
Such keen, powerful sentences as these came from his 
pen : — 

" No man, it has been said, is a hero to his valet ; and 
this is probably true ; but the fault is at least as likely 
to be the valet's as the hero's." 

" No mortal has a right to wag his tongue, much less 
to wag his pen, without saying something." 



1 8 19-1900] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 235 



Here are some of his definitions : — 

" A dandy is a clothes-wearing man, — a man whose 
trade, office, and existence consist in the wearing of 
clothes." 

" Genius means the transcendent capacity of taking 
trouble, first of all." 

These sentences show Carlyle in his simplest style ; 
but he was capable of such expressions as this : — 

"The all of things is an infinite conjugation of the 
verb — 'To do.' " 

London he called " That monstrous tuberosity of civ- 
ilized life." 

His Heroes and Hero- Worship appeared first as lec- 
tures. Fifteen years of hard labor gave the world his 
History of the Life and Times of Frederick II, History of 
commonly called Frederick the Great. Then J^Sf- 
came honors that would have rejoiced the heart 1865. 
of the father who had believed in his boy. Carlyle never 
forgot that father, and of him he wrote, " Could I write 
my Books as he built his Houses, walk my way so man- 
fully through this shadow-world, and leave it with so 
little blame, it were more than all my hopes." What 
Carlyle looked upon as his greatest honor was his being 
chosen Lord Rector of the University at Glasgow ; but 
the joy was taken away from him almost before he had 
tasted it, for he had barely finished his inaugural address 
before word was brought of the death of his wife. He 
lived until 1881, fifteen years after meeting with this 
loss. During the year before his death, a cheap edition 
of Sartor Resartus was issued, and thirty thousand copies 
were sold within a few weeks. Carlyle had found his 
audience. 

139. John Ruskin, 1819-1900. John Ruskin was a 
quiet, gentle little lad, who was brought up with books 



236 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1843-1863 

and pictures and travel and comforts of all sorts, watched 
over by the most loving of parents, but instantly pun- 
ished for the slightest disobedience. His parents, like 
Carlyle's, expected their son to be a clergyman. He 
grew up with the thought that he should be a preacher, 
and a preacher he was all his life, though he did not talk 
Modern m pulpits but in books. His earliest books 
Painters. were about art. Modern Painters was their 

1843-1860. . . _ . . l . 

name, and the first volume came out soon after 
he had taken his degree at Oxford. His text was the 
landscape painting of Turner, whom he declared to be 
"the greatest painter of all time." However that might 
be, there was no question that the young man of twenty- 
four was the greatest art critic of his time. For nearly 
twenty years he worked on the five volumes of Modern 
Painters, writing also during that time several books on 
stones of architecture. He almost always gave fanciful 
Venice. titles to his writings, and one of his earliest 

architectural works he called Stones of Venice. 
Ruskin was eager to have all, even the humblest of the 
interest in WOI "kingmen, enjoy art and beauty ; but he found 
working- that it was very hard for a man to produce works 
men " of art or even to enjoy beauty when he was 
not sure of his next meal. Such thoughts as these led 
Ruskin to write Unto This Last and Mnnera Pulveris, 
unto This wherein he discussed fearlessly the relations 
Last. 1862. between rich and poor, employer and employed, 
puiveris. etc. His ideas were looked upon as revolu- 
1863. tionary, and the magazine in which Unto This 
Last was coming out refused to continue publishing the 
chapters. In Ruskin's time there were better oppor- 
tunities to make fortunes than there had been before, 
and therefore the struggle for wealth was increasingly 
eager. He preached that not competition but Christian 



1865-1889] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 237 

thoughtfulness was the proper spirit of trade ; that idle- 
ness was guilt, but that labor should be made happy by 
the pleasures of art and the joy that comes from* the 
ability to appreciate nature. These are the thoughts 
that leaven all his subsequent books, though he wrote 
on many different subjects, ever giving whimsically poeti- 
cal titles ; for example, Deucalion treats of a the Deucalion, 
lapse of waves and the life of stones ; " Sesame ggJ^J 883 ' 
and Lilies treats of " Kings' Treasuries," by and Lilies, 
which he means books and reading, and of piperita 
" Queens' Gardens," that is, the education and 1885-1889. 
rightful work of women. His final book, an autobiog- 
raphy, is called Pr<zterita. 

Even the people who did not agree with Ruskin's 
theories could not help admiring his style and the wealth 
of imagination with which he beautified his sim- rus^s 
plest statements. His richness of imagery is st y le - 
not like Spenser's, however, — so overpowering that the 
thought is lost. With Ruskin the thought • is always 
present, always easy to find, and very often made beau- 
tiful. All this he accomplishes with the simplest Saxon 
words, for a generous share of his vocabulary came from 
the Bible, which in his childhood days he was required to 
read over and over, and long passages of which he was 
made to learn by heart. This is the way he describes 
the river Rhone : — 

There were pieces of waves that danced all day as if Perdita 
were looking on to learn ; there were little streams that skipped 
like lambs and leaped like chamois ; there were pools that shook 
the sunshine all through them, and were rippled in layers of over- 
laid ripples, like crystal sand ; there were currents that twisted 
the light into golden braids, and inlaid the threads with turquoise 
enamel ; there were strips of stream that had certainly above the 
lake been mill-streams, and were looking busily for mills to turn 
again ; there were shoots of streams that had once shot fearfully 



238 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1822-1888 

into the air, and now sprang up again laughing that they had only 
fallen a foot or two ; and in the midst of all the gay glittering 
and eddied lingering, the noble bearing by of the midmost depth, 
so mighty, yet so terrorless and harmless, with its swallows skim- 
ming instead of petrels, and the dear old decrepit town as safe 
in the embracing sweep of it as if it were set in a brooch of sap- 
phire. 

People might well admire such a manner of writing ; 
and Ruskin once said half sadly, " All my life I have 
been talking to the people, and they have listened, not 
to what I say, but to how I say it." This is not true, 
however, for in art, in ethics, even in sociology, he has 
found a large audience of thoughtful, appreciative lis- 
teners. 

140. Matthew Arnold, 1822-1888. Matthew Ar- 
nold was the son of Dr. Arnold, Head Master of Rugby, 
the " Doctor " of Tom Brown at Rugby. Ruskin was 
free to lead his life as he would. Arnold was a busy pub- 
lic official, for from his twenty-ninth year till three years 
before his death he was inspector of schools and could 
Greek gi ye to literature only the spare bits of his 
restraint, time. Yet from those broken days came forth 
both poetry and prose that give him a high rank. He 
loved the Greek literature, and in his poems there is 
„ much of the Greek restraint which does for 

The For- 
saken Mer- his poetry what high-bred courtesy does for 
man. 1849. manners< j n hi s Forsaken Merman, for in- 
stance, one of his most original and most exquisite 
poems, there is not a word of outspoken grief ; but all 
the merman's loneliness and longing are in the oft- 
repeated line, — 

Children, dear, was it yesterday ? 

Some readers are chilled by this reserve ; but to those 
who sympathize, it suggests rather a strength of feeling 



1 812-1889] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 239 



that cannot weaken itself to words. The poem that he 
wrote in memory of his father after a visit to Rugby 
Rugby Chapel fairly throbs with love and sup- JJJJJjj 
pressed sorrow, but he writes bravely : — 1857. 

O strong soul, by what shore 
Tarriest thou now? For that force 
Surely has not been left vain ! 
Somewhere, surely, afar, 
In the sounding labour-house vast 
Of being, is practised that strength, 
Zealous, beneficent, firm ! 

As a writer of prose, Matthew Arnold's special work 
is criticism of books and of life. His trumpet gives no 
uncertain sound. As he says, "We must ac- prosecriti- 
custom ourselves to a high standard and to a cism - 
strict judgment." It is he who tells us that if we keep 
in mind lines and expressions of the great masters, they 
will serve as a touchstone to show us what onthe 
poetry is real. This he says in his essay On |*g^ of 
the Study of Poetry, and it shows what clear, 1880. 
definite, helpful thoughts he has for those who go to him 
for advice or for pleasure. 

In this latest age of English literature, many poets 
have written well, but two only are counted as of the 
first rank, Robert Browning and Alfred Tennyson. 

141. Robert Browning, 1812-1889. One of the most 
interesting of Robert Browning's writings is a letter which 
says, " I love your verses with all my heart, dear The cry of 
Miss Barrett." Miss Barrett was the author of t heC ^" ; 

dren. 1843. 

several volumes of poems, many of them full of The Rhyme 
sympathy, of tender sentiment, and of religious Duchess 
trust, — poems of the sort that sink into the May. 
hearts of those who love a poem even without knowing 
why. One of these is The Cry of the Children, meaning 



240 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1843-1861 



the children who were toiling in mills and in mines. It 
pictures their sadness and weariness, and closes with the 
strong lines, — 

But the child's sob in the silence curses deeper 

Than the strong man in his wrath. 

Another favorite is The Rhyme of the Duchess May, 
which ends with a good thought expressed with the 
poet's frequent disregard of rhyme : — 

And I smiled to think God's greatness flowed around our incom- 
pleteness, 
Round our restlessness, His rest. 

The author had been an invalid for years, and she was 
able to see only a few people. She replied to Mr. Brown- 
ing's letter, " Sympa- 
thy is dear — very 
dear to me ; but the 
sympathy of a poet, 
and of such a poet, 
is the quintessence 
of sympathy ! " It 
was four months be- 
fore Miss Barrett was 
able to receive a call 
from Mr. Browning, 
but at last' they met. 
Some time later they 
were married ; and 
until the death of 
Mrs. Browning, in 
1 861 , they made their 
home in Italy, — a 
home which was ideal 
in its love and hap- 
piness. Mr. Browning had written much poetry, but it 




ROBERT BROWNING 
l8l2-l88Q 



1835-1856] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 241 



was not nearly so famous as that of his wife. It was 
harder to understand ; for some of it was on philosophi- 
cal subjects, and some of it was dramatic. Sometimes 
it is not easy to tell how to classify a poem ; p ara ceisus. 
his Paracelsus, for instance, is called a drama, 1835 - 
but it is almost entirely made up of monologue. The 
simplest of his dramas is Pippa Passes. The 
young girl Pippa is a silk-winder who has but Passes, 
one holiday in the year. When the joyful 1841 ' 
morning has come, she names over the " Four Happi- 
est " in the little town and says to herself, — 

I will pass each and see their happiness 
And envy none. 

She "passes," first, by the house wherein is one of the 
" Happiest ; " but Pippa does not know that this one and 
her lover have just committed a murder. As Pippa sings, 

God 's in his heaven — 
All 's right with the world, 

the horror of their crime comes over them, and they re- 
pent of their evil. So the song of the pure little maiden 
touches the life of each one of the " Four Happiest ; " 
but the child goes to sleep wondering whether she could 
ever come near enough to the great folk to " do good or 
evil to them some slight way." 

After their marriage both Mr. and Mrs. Browning 

continued to write. Mrs. Browning's most . 

& Aurora 

conspicuous work was Aurora Leigh, a novel Leigh, 
in verse which discusses many sociological 1856 ' 
questions, — too many for either a novel or a poem, — 
and her beautiful Sonnets from the Portugicese, sonnets 
which were in reality not from the Portuguese, po^^se. 
but straight from her own heart, and which i860, 
tell with most exquisite delicacy the story of her love 



242 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1850-1869 



for her husband. Browning published two volumes be- 
Christmas fore the death of his wife, Christmas Eve and 
Easter Day. Easier Day y and Men and Women. In 1868- 
Menand more tnan thirty-five years after he began 

women. to write, he published The Ring and the Book. 
The Ring This is the story of an Italian murder, which 
andtne m ^ Q course of the poem is related by a num- 
1868-1869. ber of different persons. It met with a hearty 
reception, partly because it is not only a poem and a fine 
one but also a wonderful picturing of the impression 
made by one act upon several unlike persons ; and partly 
Growth of because in those thirty-five years Browning's 
Browning's admirers, consisting for a long time of one 
reader here and another one there, had in- 
creased until now his audience was ready for him. 
Indeed, it was growing with amazing rapidity, partly 
because of his real merit, and partly because he some- 
times wrote in most involved and obscure fashion. 
People who liked to think were pleased with the resist- 
ance of the more difficult poems ; they liked to puzzle 
out the meaning. People who did not like to think but 
who did wish to be counted among the thinkers hastened 
to buy Browning's poems and to join Browning clubs. 

The best way for most people to enjoy these poems 
is not to struggle with some obscure and unimportant 
H wtQ difficulty of phrase or of thought, but to read 

enjoy first what they like best, and find little by little 
Browning. ^ ^ as ^ e i on g g to t ] iem es p e „ 

daily. Read some of the shorter lyrics : Prospice, The 
Lost Leader, The Pied Piper of Hamelin, that weird and 
fascinating rhyme for children, and Rabbi Ben Ezra, 
with its magnificent — 

Grow old along with me ! 
The best is yet to be. 



1809-1892] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 243 



Those last two lines are the keynote of Browning's in- 
spiration, his cheerful courage in looking at life and his 
robust confidence in the blessedness of the life that lies 
beyond. One cannot have too much of Browning. 

142. Alfred Tennyson, 1809-1892. Neither is it 
possible to have too much of Tennyson, who, far more 




ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON 

1809-1892 



than Browning, was the representative poet of the Vic- 
torian Age. Two stories' have been saved from Ten- 
nyson's childhood. One is of the five-year old child 
tossing his arms in the blast and crying, "I hear a voice 
that 's speaking in the wind." The other is of an older 
brother's reading a slateful of the little Alfred's verses 



244 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1830-1842 

and declaring judicially, "Yes, you can write." There 
were twelve of the Tennyson children. " They all wrote 
verses," said a neighbor ; and when Alfred was seven- 
teen and one of his brothers a year older, they published 
a little book of verse. Two years later Alfred entered 
poems, college, and while in college he published 
LyrS Poems, Chiefly Lyrical. These seem less like 
1830. completed works than like the first sketches of 
an artist for a picture. They are glimpses of the poet's 
talent, experiments in sound rather than expressions of 
poems. thought. In 1832 he brought out a little 
1832. volume which ought to have convinced who- 
ever glanced at it that a true poet had arisen, for here 
were not only such poems as The May Queen and Lady 
Clara Vere de Vere, which were sure to strike the pop- 
ular fancy, but also The Dream of Fair Women, The 
Lotus-Eaters, and The Lady of Shalott. Never- 
criticism. theless, the critics were severe ; and this was 
perhaps the best thing that could have happened to the 
Poems young poet, for he set to work to study and 
1842. think. Ten years later he brought out two 
S^if 11 * 1011 more volumes, and then there was no question 
genius. tnat was first poet of his time. The best 
known of these poems are his thrilling little song, — 

Break, break, break, 

On thy cold gray stones, O Sea ! 
And I would that my tongue could utter 

The thoughts that arise in me, 

and Locks ley Hall. The latter has been read and re- 
cited and quoted and parodied, but it is not even yet 
worn out. Here are the two stanzas that were Tenny- 
son's special favorites : — 

Love took up the glass of Time and turn'd it in his glowing hands ; 
Every moment, lightly. shaken, ran itself in golden sands. 



1847-1850] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 245 

Love took up the harp of Life, and smote on all the chords with 
might ; 

Smote the chord of Self, that, trembling, pass'd in music out of 
sight. 

In these volumes, too, were Morte d' A rthur and snatches 
of poems on Galahad and Launcelot, — enough to show 
that Tennyson had found old Malory, and that the stories 
of King Arthur and the Round Table were haunting his 
mind. When The Princess came out, there was some 
criticism of the impossible story in a probable ThePrln 
setting, of the mingling of the earnest and the cess,aMed- 
burlesque, which the poet had not entirely fore- ley " 1847, 
stalled by calling the poem a Medley. It is a very beau- 
tiful medley, however, and the songs which were inter- 
spersed in the later edition are most exquisite. Here 
are "Sweet and Low," "The splendor falls on castle 
walls," and others. 

The year 1850 was a marked season for Tennyson. It 
was the year of his marriage to the lady from whom 
financial reasons had separated him for twelve ^m^o. 
years ; it was the year of publication of In rl am. i850. 
Memoriam and of his appointment as Laureate. In 
Memoriam was called forth by the death of Arthur Henry 
Hallam, Tennyson's best-loved college friend, which took 
place seventeen years earlier. It is a collection of short 
poems, gleams of his thoughts of his friend, changing as 
time passed from "large grief," from questioning, " How 
fares it with the happy dead ? " from tender memories of 
Hallam's words and ways — from all these to the hour 
when he who grieved could rest — 

And hear at times a sentinel 

Who moves about from place to place, 
And whispers to the worlds of space, 

In the deep night, that all is well. 



246 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [1858-1886 

The duties of the Laureate have vanished, but there is a 
mild expectation that he will manifest some interest in 
the greater events of the kingdom by an occa- 
sional poem. Tennyson fulfilled this expecta- 
tion generously, and his Laureate poems have a clear ring 
of sincerity. They range all the way from his welcome 
to the present queen of England, — 

Sea-kings' daughter from over the sea, 

to his superb Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington: 

Bury the Great Duke 

With an empire's lamentation, 
Let us bury the Great Duke 

To the noise of the mourning of a mighty nation. 

The idylls "^ ot on ^ sincerity, but tender respect and 
oftheKing. sympathy, unite in his dedication of the Idylls 

1858-1886 

of the King to the memory of Prince Albert : — 

These to His Memory — since he held them dear, 
Perchance as finding there unconsciously 
Some image of himself. 

To the queen in her sadness he says : — 

Break not, O woman's heart, but still endure ; 
Break not, for thou art Royal, but endure. 

In the Idylls Tennyson had come to his kingdom ; for 
the "dim, rich " legends were after his own heart. Here 
was a thread of story which he could alter as he would ; 
here were love, valor, innocence, faithlessness, treachery, 
religious ecstasy, an earthly journey with a heavenly 
recompense. Here were opportunities for the brilliant 
and varied ornament in which he delighted, for all the 
beauties of description, and for a character drawing as 
strong as it was delicate. 

In the Idylls Tennyson shows his power to present 



1864-1892] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 247 



the complex in character ; but in Enoch Arden he draws 
with no less skill a simple fisherman who Enocll 
through no fault of his own meets lifelong sor- Arden. 
row and loneliness. Enoch, is wrecked on a 
desert island, and his wife, believing him dead, finally 
yields and marries his friend. After many years Enoch 
finds his way home, but his home is his no more, and 
he prays : — 

Uphold me, Father, in my loneliness 
A little longer ! aid me, give me strength 
Not to tell her, never to let her know. 
Help me not to break in upon her peace. 

So simply, so naturally is the story told that the whole 
force of the silent tragedy, of the greatness of the fish- 
erman hero, is not realized till the triumph of the closing 
words, — 

So past the strong, heroic soul away. 

Yielding to the fascination which the drama has for 
men of literary genius, Tennyson wrote several Tennyson ' S 
historical plays, but this was not his field. The drama, 
characters are not lifelike, and, though the plays read 
well, they do not act well. 

Among his last work was Crossing the Bar. Every 
true poet has a message. His was of faith and trust, and 
nothing could be more fitting as his envoy than the 
closing stanza of this lyric : — 

For though from out our bourne of Time and Place 

The flood may bear me far, 
I hope to see my Pilot face to face 

When I have crost the bar. 

143. The age of the pen. The nineteenth century 
has been called the age of steam and electricity ; but 
perhaps a better name would be the age of the pen, for 
almost every one writes. In this mass of literary work 



248 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [19th Cent. 

there is much excellence ; but, leaving out the greatest 
authors, only a prophet could select "the few, the im- 
mortal names that were not born to die." The historical 
value of these many writers is unknown, their intrinsic 
value is undecided ; criticism is variable, and is prejudiced 
by their nearness. Nevertheless, it is hard to pass over 
the " Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood," such a group of poets 
as William Morris with his Earthly Paradise, Dante 
Gabriel Rossetti with the weird charm of his Blessed 
Damozel ; and Algernon Charles Swinburne, whose 
verses, ever strong and intense, reveal the touch of a 
master of all music. 

Aside from the historians already named, the greater 
number of writers of history have taken England for 
their theme. John Richard Green, in his Short History 
of the English People, gave new life to the men of the 
olden times ; Edward Augustus Freeman, ever accurate 
and painstaking, wrote of the Norman Conquest ; James 
Anthony Froude was, like Macaulay, a partisan, and 
therefore not always to be trusted in his estimates of 
men, but, like Macaulay, he possessed the "historical 
imagination," which is, after all, little more than the 
ability to remember that men of the past were as human 
as men of the present. 

Among scientific writings Charles Darwin's Origin of 
Species, Sir Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, and 
the works of Tyndall and Huxley have been most widely 
read. The names of essayists and critics are many. 
Walter Pater with his harmonious sentences, John 
Henry Newman with his exquisitely polished diction, 
are well known and are well worthy of honor. Espe- 
cially hopeless is the effort to make a satisfactory choice 
among the novelists. Not every one would dream of 
attempting a scientific treatise or a volume of even sec- 



19th Cent.] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 249 

ond-rate poetry ; but who is there, from Disraeli, the 
British premier, to the young girl whose graduation 
gown is still fresh, that does not feel the longing to pro- 
duce a novel? Edward Bulwer Lytton, Lord Lytton, 




CARDINAL NEWMAN 



won fame by his Last Days of Pompeii ; Elizabeth Cleg- 
horn Gaskell was the author of Cranford, that little mas- 
terpiece of delineation of village life ; Charles Reade 
wrote Put Yourself in His Place and other stories, many 
of which aimed vigorous blows at some social injustice. 
Within the last twenty years novels have made their ap- 
pearance by the score. Who can say whether the excel- 
lence which we see in many of them is really enduring 
excellence or only some quality so especially congenial 



250 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [19th Cent. 



to our own times that it seems excellent to us ? Whether 
these later works are strong and lasting currents in the 
stream of England's literature or whether they are only 
eddies and ripples, it is too early to decide. 

For twelve hundred years or longer this stream has 
flowed, now narrowed, now broadened, but ever moving 
onward. The epic has swept on from the simple thought 
and primeval virtues of Beowulf to the harmonious organ 
tones of Paradise Lost. The drama, beginning with the 
mystery play, has come to its height under the magic 
touch of Shakespeare, and presents not only action but 
that intangible thing, thought, and development of char- 
acter. The early lyric is known to us in a single poem, 
Widsith. To-day lyric poetry means the glorious out- 
burst of song of the Elizabethan times ; it means such 
poems as Browning's Prospice, wherein the physical 
courage of the viking has become the religious courage 
of the Christian; and it means such delicate, thoughtful, 
sympathetic love of nature and such exquisiteness of 
expression as are shown in the works of Burns and 
Wordsworth and Tennyson. Prose, at first as heavy and 
rough and clumsy as a weapon of some savage tribe, has 
become through centuries of hammering and filing and 
tempering as keen as a Damascus blade. History, which 
was at first the bare statement of certain occurrences, 
has become a vivid panorama of events, combined with 
profound study of their causes and their results. Bio- 
graphy is no longer the throwing of a preternatural halo 
around its subject ; the ideal biography of to-day is that 
which, uncolored by the prejudice of the writer, presents 
the man himself as interpreted by his deeds and words. 
The novel is the form of literary expression belonging 
especially to the present age ; and because of its very 
nearness to us in time and in interest, the judgment of 



1 9th Cent.] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 25 1 



its merits is difficult. Of two points, however, we may 
be sure: first, that to centre in one character of a book 
all interest and all careful workmanship is a mark of de- 
generacy ; second, that to picture life faithfully, but with 
the faithfulness of the artist and not of the camera, is a 
mark of excellence. It is this requirement of faithful- 
ness to truth which is after all the most worthy literary 




THE POETS' CORNER, WESTMINSTER ABBEY 



" note " of our age. The history must be accurate ; the 
biography must be unprejudiced ; the reasoning of the 
essay must be without fallacy ; the poem must flash out 
a genuine thought ; and the novel that would endure 
must be true to life. Whatever the future of England's 
literature may be, it has at least the foundation of hon- 
.est effort and an inexorable demand for sincerity and 
truth. 



252 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [19th Cent. 



Century XIX 

CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 
Before 1832 

The " Lake Poets : " 
William Wordsworth. 
Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 
Robert Southey. 



Lovers of beauty : 
Percy Bysshe Shelley. 
John Keats. 



The romantic poets : 

Walter Scott (historical nov- 
elist). 
Lord Byron. 



Essayists : 

Charles Lamb. 
Thomas De Quincey. 



The realist : 
Jane Austen. 



After 1832 



Novelists : 

Charles Dickens. 
William Makepeace Thack- 
eray. 
" George Eliot." 



Essayists : 

Thomas BabingtonMacaulay 

(historian). 
Thomas Carlyle. 
John Ruskin. 
Matthew Arnold. 



Poets : 

Robert Browning and Mrs. 

Browning. 
Alfred Tennyson. 

SUMMARY 



During the first thirty years of the century the principal 
authors were : — 

1. The "Lake Poets," — Wordsworth, Coleridge, and 
Southey. Wordsworth believed that poetry should treat of 
simple subjects in every-day language. Coleridge believed 
in treating lofty subjects in a realistic manner. These theo- 
ries were illustrated by We Are Seven and The Ancient Mar- 
iner. Southey wrote weird epics whose scenes were laid in 
distant lands, and also many histories and biographies. 
Coleridge had universal talent, but left everything incom- 



ipthCent.] THE CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 253 



plete. Wordsworth quietly wrote on, and slowly his power 
to describe and interpret nature was recognized. 

2. The romantic writers, Scott and Byron. Scott's first 
work was ballad writing and ballad collecting. Then came 
the Lay of the Last Minstrel^ Mamiion, etc. Byron's poetry 
won the attention of the crowd, and Scott then devoted him- 
self to the Waverley novels. He undertook also histories, 
biographies, and translations ; and the inventor of the his- 
torical novel died of overwork. 

Byron's first poetry was savagely reviewed, and he replied 
fiercely. Childe Harold made him famous. He wrote many 
cynical, romantic narrative poems and many beautiful de- 
scriptions of nature. He died while trying to help the Greeks 
win freedom from the Turks. 

3. The lovers of beauty, Shelley and Keats. Shelley's life 
was a continual revolt against established law. His poems 
are marked not only by beauty but by a certain light and 
airy quality which makes them unlike other poems. 

Keats 's first poem, Endy??iion, was criticised as savagely as 
Byron's early work. He made no reply and continued to 
write. Although he died at the age of twenty-four, he is 
ranked among the first of those who have loved beauty and 
created it. 

4. The essayists, Lamb and De Quincey. Lamb could 
give to literature only fragments of his time. He attempted 
poems, stories, and plays ; but had no special success till the 
publication of Tales from Shakespeare. His best work was 
his Essays of Ella, wherein he shows himself the most grace- 
ful and charming of humorists. 

De Quincey's first work, Confessions of an English Opium- 
Eater, won much attention and was the first of his one hun- 
dred and fifty magazine articles ; wherein he is dreamy, whim- 
sical, or merely the teller of a plain story, as the mood seizes 
him ; but is always interesting. 

5. The magazine critics. The Edinburgh Review, edited 
by Jeffrey ; the Quarterly Review ; and Blackwood's, edited 



254 ENGLAND'S LITERATURE [19th Cent. 

by John Wilson, were all founded during the first twenty 
years of the century. 

6. The realist, Jane Austen, who wrote quiet novels of 
home life with exceedingly good delineation of character. 

In 1832, nearly all these authors were dead or had ceased 
to write. There were changes in government ; education be- 
came more general; reading matter was cheaper; scientific 
discoveries aroused thought. During the half-century follow- 
ing 1832, there was a remarkable development of : — 

1. The novel, in the hands of Dickens, Thackeray, and 
" George Eliot." The Pickwick Papers made Dickens fa- 
mous. During twenty years he published novel after novel, 
merry, pathetic, but always charming ; even though the char- 
acters often seem unreal and are usually labelled by some 
one quality. 

Thackeray was less amusing and won fame more slowly. 
He was a satirist, but a kindly one. He wrote not only novels 
but lectures, literary and historical, and historical novels. 

" George Eliot " did not attempt fiction till she was thirty- 
seven, but her first work was so successful that after its pub- 
lication she devoted herself to novel writing. Even aside 
from their literary merit, the justice and charity of her nov- 
els can hardly fail to make them lasting. 

2. The essay, in the hands of Macaulay, Carlyle, Ruskin, 
and Arnold. Macaulay wrote at twenty-five his essay on 
Milton, the brilliant style of which brought him recognition. 
He wrote many essays, some poetry, and then his History of 
England. This was not impartial by any means, but was in- 
tensely interesting and sold in enormous numbers. 

Carlyle had reached middle age before his talent was re- 
cognized, chiefly because he often wrote in a harsh and dis- 
agreeable style. His Life of Frederick II, published when 
he was between sixty and seventy, brought him wide fame 
and honors of all kinds. 

Ruskin at the age of twenty-four was recognized as the 
greatest art critic of his time. His love of beauty and his 



1 9th Cent.] CENTURY OF THE NOVEL 



255 



wish that workingmen should enjoy it led him to a fearless 
discussion of the relations between rich and poor, and there- 
by he aroused severe criticism. His style, however, was ad- 
mired by all. 

Arnold, like Lamb, could give to literature only spare 
minutes. His poems are marked by a Greek restraint. His 
prose was in great degree made up of criticism of books and 
life ; in both of which he insisted upon a high standard. 

3. In poetry, Browning and Tennyson are counted as of 
the first rank. Browning's wife was famous as a poet in her 
early years, but appreciation came to him slowly. For thirty- 
five years he found only scattered admirers. Then he pub- 
lished The Ring and the. Book, and at last his audience was 
ready. His writings are often involved in thought and in 
phrase ; but they are of a high order of poetry and are 
marked by courage and faith. 

Tennyson was the representative poet of the Victorian 
Age. His first work seems like experiments in sound. Ex- 
cellent as it is, it met severe criticism. Twelve years after 
the publication of his first volume he was recognized as 
the first poet of his time. His most popular works are In 
Memoriam, The Idylls of the King, and Enoch Arden, three 
poems of utterly different character. His Laureate poems 
have an unusual ring of sincerity. His attempts at drama 
were not successful. His message, like Browning's, was one 
of faith and trust. 

Besides those mentioned, the century has been rich in 
poets, novelists, historians, scientists, and essayists, many of 
whom in almost any other age would have been looked upon 
as men of the highest genius. 

Tracing the course of English literature for twelve hundred 
years, we see the development of both poetry and prose from 
the simplest beginnings to a high degree of excellence. The 
novel is the special form of literary expression characteristic 
of this age. In it, as in all other literary work of the time, 
the first demand is for faithfulness to truth. 




J^ytfyb/dc <l v-^-ws^ A 



A WORD ABOUT AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



We are so near to even the beginning of our American 
literature that to write its history is an especially difficult 
undertaking. Too little time has passed to trace influ- 
ences and tendencies, perhaps even to estimate justly 
the value of the work whose strongest appeal is not to 
the present. During the last century, our world has 
moved so swiftly that the light has flashed now upon one 
writer, now upon another. Who can foretell upon which 
the noontide of to-morrow will shine most brilliantly ? 
Who can say whether our realism will not seem unworthy 
triviality, whether the closely connected sentences of 
our best prose may not present the repellent formality 
of conscious art ? In every decade many writers have 
come forward whose names it seems ungracious to omit. 
Wherever the lines are drawn, they will appear to some 
one an arbitrary and unreasonable barrier. A single 
slender volume can make no pretensions to complete- 
ness ; but if this one only leads its readers to feel a 
friendship for the authors mentioned on its pages, and 
a wish to know more of them and their writings, its ob- 
ject will have been accomplished. 

Worcester, January, 1906. 



A SHORT HISTORY 
OF AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



CHAPTER I 

THE COLONIAL PERIOD 

I 607-I 765 

1. Literary work in England. In the early part of 
the seventeenth century England was all aglow with 
literary inspiration. Shakespeare was writing his noblest 
tragedies. Ben Jonson was writing plays, adoring his 
friend Shakespeare, and growling at him because he 
would not observe the rules of the classical drama. 
Francis Bacon was rising swiftly to the height of his 
glory as Chancellor of England and incidentally com- 
posing essays so keen and strong and brilliant that he 
seems to have said the last word on whatever subject 
he touches. There were many lesser lights, several of 
whom would have been counted great in any other age. 

2. Early American histories. In all the blaze of 
this literary glory colonists began to sail away from the 
shores of England for the New World. They had to 
meet famine, cold, pestilence, hard work, and danger from 
the Indians. Nevertheless, our old friend, John Smith, 
wrote a book on Virginia, and George Sandys completed 
on Virginian soil his translation of Ovid's Metamor- 
phoses. These men, however, were only visitors to 
America; and, important as their writings may be his- 
torically or poetically, they have small connection with 
American literature. It was on the rockbound coast of 



260 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



Massachusetts that our literature made its real begin- 
ning. The earnest, serious Pilgrims and Puritans dis- 
approved of the plays and masques that were flourishing 
in England ; pastoral verse was to them a silly affecta- 
tion ; the delicate accuracy of the sonnet showed a sin- 
ful waste of time and thought. They were striving to 
make an abode for righteousness, and whatever did not 
manifestly conduce to that single aim, they counted as of 
evil. Writing their own history, however, was reckoned 
a most godly work. " We are the Lord's chosen people," 
they said to themselves with humble pride. " His hand 
is ever guiding us. Whatever happens to us then must 
be of importance, and for the glory of God it should 
be recorded." With this thought in mind, Governor 
wniiam William Bradford of Plymouth, the " Father of 
Bradford, American History," wrote his History of Ply m- 
1590-1657. Plantation, "in a plaine stile," as he 

says, and " with singuler regard unto y e simple trueth 
in all things." He tells about the struggles and suffer- 
ings of his people in the Old World, about that famous 
scene in Holland when "their Revef pastor falling 
downe on his knees, (and they all with him,) with watri 
cheeks coinended them with most fervent praiers to the 
Lord and his blessing. And then with mutuall imbrases 
and many tears, they tooke their leaves one of an other ; 
which proved to be y e last leave to many of them." 
Governor Bradford could picture well such a scene as 
this, and he could also write spicily of the lordly salt- 
maker who came among them. " He could not doe 
anything but boil salt in pans," says the Governor, "and 
yet would make them y* were joynd with him beleeve 
there was so great misterie in it as was not easie to be 
attained, and made them doe many unnecessary things 
to blind their eys, till they discerned his sutltie." 



THE COLONIAL PERIOD 



26l 



A second history, that of New England, was also writ- 
ten by a governor, John Winthrop of the Massachusetts 
Bay Colony. Among his accounts of weightier John Win _ 
matters he does not forget to tell of the little throp, 

• 1R88 1649 

everyday occurrences, — of the chimney that 
took fire, of the calf that wandered away and was lost, of 
the two young men on shipboard who were punished for 
fighting by having their hands tied behind them and 
being ordered to walk up and down the deck all day, of 
the strange visions and lights that were seen and the 
strange voices that were heard. It is such details as these 
that carry us back to the lives of our ancestors, their 
fears and their troubles. 

3. The Bay Psalm Book, 1640. While these two 
histories were being written, three learned men in Mas- 
sachusetts set to work to prepare a version of the 
Psalms to use in church. A momentous question arose : 
Would it be right to use a trivial and unnecessary 
ornament like rhyme? "There is sometimes rhyme in 
the original Hebrew," said one, "and therefore it must 
be right to use it." Thus established, they took their 
pens in hand, and in 1640 the famous Bay Psalm Book 
was published in America, the first book printed on 
American soil. This was the version of Psalm xxxv, 5 : — 

As chaffe before the winde, let them 
be, & Gods Angell them driving. 
Let their way dark and slippery bee, 
and the Lords Angell them chasing. 

The "Admonition to the Reader" at the end of the 
book declares that many of these psalms may be sung 
to "neere fourty common tunes," and indeed there seems 
no reason why a hymn like this should not be sung to 
one tune as well as another. Now these struggling 
poets were scholars ; two of them were university grad- 



262 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



uates. They had lived in England during the noblest 
age of English poetry. Why, then, did they make the 
Psalms into such doggerel ? The reason was that they 
were in agonies of conscience lest they should allow the 
charm of some poetical expression to lure them away 
from the seriousness of truth ; and they declared with 
artless complacency and somewhat unnecessary frank- 
ness that they had " attended Conscience rather than 
Elegance, fidelity rather than poetry." 

A generous amount of verse was written in the colo- 
nies even in the early days. Many of the settlers were 
educated men, fully accustomed to putting their thoughts 
on paper, and they seemed to feel that it dignified a 
thought to make it into, verse. Religion was the all- 
absorbing subject, and therefore they have left us many 
thousand lines of religious hopes and fears. Unfortu- 
nately, it takes more than study to make a man a poet, 
and hardly a line of all the accumulation can be called 
poetry. 

4. Michael Wigglesworth, 1631-1715. The most 

lengthy piece of this early colonial rhyme was produced 
The Day of t>y tne Reverend Michael Wigglesworth of 
Doom, 1662. Maiden. It was called The Day of Doom, or, 
A Poetical Description of the Great and Last Judgment. 
It painted with considerable imaginative power the Last 
Judgment as the Reverend Michael thought it ought to 
be. After the condemnation of the other sinners, the 
" reprobate infants," the children who had died in baby- 
hood, appear at the bar of God and plead that they are 
not to blame for what Adam did. They say : — 

Not we, but he ate of the Tree 

whose fruit was interdicted : 
Yet on us all of his sad Fall, 

the punishment 's inflicted. 



THE COLONIAL PERIOD 



263 



The answer is : — 

A Crime it is, therefore in bliss 

you may not hope to dwell ; 
But unto you I shall allow 

the easiest room in Hell. 

The early colonists bought this book in such numbers 
that it may be looked upon as America's first and great- 
est literary success. The first year 1800 copies were 
sold ; and it is esti- 
mated that with our 
increased popula- 
tion this would be 
equivalent to a sale 
of 2,000,000 copies 
to-day. 

5. Anne Brad- 
street, 1612 or 
1613-1672. The 
praise of Michael 
Wigglesworth was 
as naught when 
compared with the 
glory of one Mis- 
tress Anne Brad- 
street, who abode 
with her husband 
and eight children 
in the wilderness 
of Andover and 
therein did write 
much poetry. Peo- 
ple were in ecsta- 
sies over her compositions, and they did not accuse her 
publisher of exaggeration when he wrote on the title- 



% THE i» 

I TENTH MUSE f 

I Lately fprurig up in Amer ica. g 
S OR | 

Severall Poems, Compiled | 

with great variety of VVit | 

and Learning 5 full of delight, g 
$ Wherein efpecialfy is contained a com- j£ 
»g pleat difcourfe and defcription of g, 
J| (Elancnis, § 

% The Fom<^*f j*< £ 

§ y Ages f mm g 

4 {Serous ef the Tear. S 

% Together with an Ex-aft Epitomie of § 
♦| the Four Monarchies, viz. % 

I The & &n > I 
£ [Grecian, & 

£ ' Roman, T 

I Alfo -a Dialogue between Old England and f 

* Ncw 3 concerning the late troubles. § 

•O With J ivers other p jojantji nd fanu s Poems. 

4 Jty a Gen tkwomajTin 1 hofc"part?, 

§ Pi intcd KhonM (at St'yWn BowtctUTihcfwcoiTht % 
Bsble in Topes He?d- Alley. 16 jo. * 



THE TITLE-PAGE OF ANNE BRADSTREET'S 
BOOK OF POEMS 



264 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



page of her book, " Severall Poems, compiled with great 
variety of Wit and Learning, full of delight." She was 
Several called " The Tenth Muse, lately sprung up in 
Poems, &c. America." Learned Cotton Mather declared 
1678 ' that her work " would outlast the stateliest 
marble." However that may be, it was certainly the 
nearest approach to poetry that the colonies produced 
during their first century, and now and then we find a 
phrase with some little poetic merit. In her poem Con- 
templation, for instance, are the lines : — 

I heard the merry grasshopper then sing, 

The "black-clad cricket bear a second part; - 
They kept one tune and played on the same string, 

Seeming to glory in their little art. 

6. The children's book. One cannot help wonder- 
ing a little what the children found to read in colonial 
days, for the youngest baby Pilgrim was an old man 
before it occurred to any one to write a child's book. 
Even then, it was a book that most of the boys and girls 
of to-day would think rather dull, for it was a serious 
NewEng ^ t1: ^ e scnoo ^ook called the New England 
land Primer. No one knows who wrote it, but it 
between was Polished by one Benjamin Harris at his 
1687 and coffee-house and bookstore in Boston, " by the 
Town-Pump near the Change," some time be- 
tween 1687 and 1690. It contained such knowledge as 
was thought absolutely necessary for children. After 
the alphabet came a long list of tw 7 o-letter combinations, 
" ab, eb, ib, ob, ub ; ac, ec, ic, oc, uc," etc. ; then a list of 
words of one syllable ; and at last the child had worked 
his way triumphantly to " a-bom-i-na-tion " and "qual-i- 
fi-ca-tion." There were several short and simple prayers, 
and there was a picture of the martyr, John Rogers, 
standing composedly in the flames while his family wept 



THE COLONIAL PERIOD 



265 



around him, and the executioner 
There was a sec- 
ond alphabet with a 
rhyme and a pic- 
ture for every let- 
ter. It began : — 

In Adam's Fall 
We sinned all. 



In the course of 
countless reprints, 
many changes were 
made. It is said D 
that in one edition 
or another the coup- 
let for every letter 
in the alphabet was 
changed except 
that for A; but the 
Puritan never gave 
up his firm grasp 
upon the belief in 
original sin. For a 
century these two 
lines were a part 
of every orthodox 
child's moral equip- 
ment, and they were 
the keynote of the 
greater part of the 
prose and rhyme 
produced in Amer- 
ica during the colo- 
nial period. 




grinned maliciously. 



la Adah's Fall 
We finned all. 



Heaven to find, 
The Bible Mind. 



Chrift crucify'd 
For finners dy'd. 



The Deluge drown'd 
The Earih around. 



Elijah hid 
By Karens fed. 



The judgment made 
Felix afraid. 



As runs the Glass, 
Our Life doth pass. 



My Book and Heart 
Must never part. 



Job feels the Rod,— 
Yet bleffes GOD. 



Proud Korah's troop 
Was fwallowed up. 



THE ALPHABET IN THE NEW ENGLAND PRIMER 




266 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



7. Cotton Mather, 1663-1728. Even if almost all 
the colonial books were written for the grown folk, the 
children and their future were not forgotten. How 
to make sure of educated ministers for them and for 
their children's children was the question. It was set- 
tled by the founding of Harvard College in 1636, only 
sixteen years after the little band of Pilgrims landed at 
Plymouth. One of its most famous graduates during 
the colonial days was the Reverend Cotton Mather. He 
took his degree at fifteen, and three years later he was 
already so famous for his learning that he received an 
urgent call to become a pastor in far-away New Haven. 
He refused, became his father's assistant at the North 
Church in Boston ; and at the North Church he re- 
mained for more than forty years. Preaching, however, 
was but a small part of his work. He had the largest 
library in the colonies, and he knew it thoroughly. He 
could write in seven languages ; he was deeply interested 
in science ; he kept fasts and vigils innumerable. He 
was grave and somewhat stern in manner, and people 
were seldom quite at ease with him ; but he had a tender 
spot in his heart for boys and girls, and whenever he 
passed through a village, he used to beg a holiday for 
the children of the place. He was horrified at the sever- 
ity shown in the schools of the day ; and among his own 
flock of fifteen there was rarely any punishment more 
severe than to be forbidden to enter his presence. One 
of his sons wrote that their father never rose from the 
table without first telling them some entertaining story, 
and that when a child had done some little deed that he 
knew would please the stately minister, he would run to 
him, and say, " Now, father, tell me some curious thing." 

With all his other occupations, he did an immense 
amount of writing. Nearly four hundred books and pam- 



THE COLONIAL PERIOD 



267 



phlets have been published, and there are still thou- 
sands of pages in manuscript. His best-known book is 
his Magnalia Chris ti Americana, or The Eccle- M agna ii a 
siastical History of Nezu England. Like Bede's Christi, 
Ecclesiastical History^ it is much more enter- 
taining than one would think from its ponderous title. 
Cotton Mather's aim was to record the dealings of God 
with his chosen people, and the character of those peo- 
ple. He followed the fashion of dropping in bits of 
Latin and Greek, and making intricate contrasts and 
comparisons that sometimes remind the reader of John 
Donne — without Donne's genius. He begins the book 
with an imitation of the yEneid, which he and his early 
readers probably thought extremely effective. But there 
is much besides a Virgilian preface in his work. There 
are enthusiastic descriptions of the men whom he ad- 
mired, written with many a touch of beauty and sincere 
tenderness. Then, too, the book is a perfect storehouse 
of all sorts of wonder-tales : the story of the " ship in the 
air" which Longfellow made into a rhyme, using often 
the very words of the old chronicler ; that of the two- 
headed snake of Newbury, of which Whittier wrote ; and 
many others. Among the pages that bristle with august 
phrases from the dead languages, we find here and there 
some simple story like the following, which is told of 
Winthrop, and which makes us feel that Mather in his 
wig and bands and Winthrop in his exasperatingly un- 
tumbled ruff are not so unlike men of to-day, and would 
be exceedingly interesting people to know : — 

In a hard and long Winter, when Wood was very scarce at Bos- 
ton, a Man gave him a private Information, that a needy Person 
in his Neighbourhood stole Wood sometimes from his Pile ; where- 
upon the Governour in a seeming Anger did reply, Does he so ? 
I '11 take a Course with him ; go, call that Man to me, I '11 warrant 



268 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



you I '11 cure him of stealing ! When the Man came, the Govern- 
our considering that if he had Stoln, it was more out of Necessity 
than Disposition, said unto him, Friend, It is a severe Winter, and 
I doubt you are but meanly provided for Wood ; wherefore I would 
have you supply yourself at my Wood-Pile till this cold Season be 
over. And he then Merrily asked his Friends, Whether he had not 
effectually cured this Man of Stealing his Wood ? 

8. Samuel Sewall, 1652-1730. During the greater 
part of Cotton Mather's life an interesting diary was be- 
ing written by Judge Samuel Sewall. He tells of being 
comfortable in the stoveless meeting-house, though his 
ink froze by a good fire at home ; of whipping his little 
Joseph "pretty smartly" for "playing at Prayer-time 
and eating when Returne Thanks ; " of the lady who 
cruelly refused to bestow her hand upon the eager wid- 
ower, even though wooed with prodigal munificence by 
the gift of " one-half pound of sugar almonds, cost three 
shillings per pound." Though the writings of the hon- 
est old Judge cannot strictly be called literature, their 
frank revelation of everyday life presents too excellent a 
background for the writings of others to be entirely for- 
gotten. 

9. Jonathan Edwards, 1703-1758. In 1730 Judge 
Sewall died. In that year a young man of twenty-seven 
was preaching in Northampton who was to become fa- 
mous for his original, clear, and logical thought and his 
power to move an audience. He had been a wonder all 
the days of his life. When he ought to have been play- 
ing marbles, he was reading Greek and Latin and He- 
brew. He was deeply interested in natural philosophy, 
and even more deeply in theology. When he was four- 
teen, he read Locke's Essay on the Human Understand- 
ing, and declared that it inexpressibly entertained and 
pleased him. 



THE COLONIAL PERIOD 



269 



Such was Jonathan Edwards. He was the greatest 
clergyman of the first half of the eighteenth century, and 
some have not feared to call him the "most original and 
acute thinker yet pro- 
duced in America." He 
was quite different from 
the earlier colonial pastors 
like Cotton Mather, men 
who were gazed upon by 
their flocks with wonder 
and humble reverence as 
recognized leaders in reli- 
gion, learning, and poli- 
tics. His time was de- 
voted to theology. After 
twenty-four years in 
Northampton he went to 
the little village of Stock- 
bridge and became a mis- 
sionary to the Indians. 
Then there was such poverty in the Edwards family that 
fresh, whole sheets of paper were a rare luxury, and the 
thoughts of the keenest mind in the land were jotted 
down on the backs of letters or the margins of pam- 
phlets. By and by these thoughts were pub- The Inqul . 
lished in book form. This book was The In- ry into the 
quiry into the Freedom of the Will. Then the the Will, 
modest missionary to the Indians became fa- 1754 - 
mous among metaphysicians the world over,- for in acute, 
powerful reasoning he had no superior. It is small wonder 
that Princeton hastened to send a messenger to the little 
village in the wilderness to offer him the presidency of 
the college. He accepted the offer, but died after only 
one month's service. 




JONATHAN EDWARDS 
1703-1758 



270 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



Unfortunately, the passage of Edwards's writings that 
is oftenest quoted is from his sermon on "Sinners in the 
hands of an angry God," wherein even his clearsighted- 
ness confuses God's pitying love for the sinner with his 
hatred of sin. More in harmony with Edwards's natural 
disposition is his simple, frank description of his boy- 
hood happiness when after many struggles he first began 
to realize the love of God. He wrote : — 

The appearance of everything was altered ; there seemed to be, 
as it were, a calm, sweet cast or appearance of divine glory in 
almost everything. God's excellency, his wisdom, his purity and 
love, seemed to appear in everything: in the sun, moon, and stars; 
in the clouds and blue sky; in the grass, flowers, trees; in the 
water and all nature ; which used greatly to fix my mind. I often 
used to sit and view the moon for a long time ; and in the day 
spent much time in viewing the clouds and sky, to behold the sweet 
glory of God in these things : in the mean time, singing forth, with 
a low voice, my contemplations of the Creator and Redeemer. 
And scarce anything, among all the works of nature, was so sweet 
to me as thunder and lightning; formerly nothing had been so 
terrible to me. Before, I used to be uncommonly terrified with 
thunder, and to be struck with terror when I saw a thunder-storm 
rising ; but now, on the contrary, it rejoiced me. I felt God, if I 
may so speak, at the first appearance of a thunder-storm; and used 
to take the opportunity, at such times, to fix myself in order to view 
the clouds, and see the lightnings play, and hear the majestic and 
awful voice of God's thunder. 

10. Minor writers. Such was the literature of our 
colonial days. Few names can be mentioned, but there 
were scores of minor writers. There was Roger Wil- 
liams, that lover of peace and arouser of contention ; 
John Eliot, one of the three manufacturers of the Bay 
Psalm Book, whose Indian Bible is a part of literature, 
if not of American literature. There was the witty grum- 
bler, Nathaniel Ward, the " Simple Cobbler of Agawam;" 
William Bird, who described so graphically the dangers 



THE COLONIAL PERIOD 



271 



and difficulties of running a surveyor's line across the 
Dismal Swamp. There was John Woolman, the Quaker, 
so tender of conscience that he believed it wasteful and 
therefore wrong to injure the wearing qualities of cloth 
by coloring it ; and of such charming frankness that he 
confesses how uneasy he felt lest his fellow Friends 
should think he was "affecting singularity " in wearing 
a hat of the natural color of the fur. Some of the para- 
graphs of his journal might almost have come from the 
pen of Whittier, so full are they of the poet's sensitive- 
ness and shyness and his boldness in doing right. There 
were newspapers, the Boston News Letter the first of all. 
There were almanacs, the first appearing at Cambridge 
almost as soon as Harvard College was founded. 

The colonial days passed swiftly, and the time soon 
came when the country was aroused and thrilled by an 
event that changed the aim and purpose of all colonial 
writings. In 1765 the Stamp Act was passed ; and after 
that date, when men took their pens in hand, their com- 
positions did not belong to the Colonial Period ; for, 
consciously or unconsciously, they had entered into the 
second period of American literature, the literature of 
the Revolution. 



The Colonial Period 



1607-1765 



William Bradford 
John Winthrop 
The Bay Psalm Book 
Michael Wigglesworth 
Anne Bradstreet 



The New England Pri?ner 
Cotton Mather 
Samuel Sewall 
Jonathan Edwards 



SUMMARY 



In the early part of the seventeenth century England was 
aglow with literary inspiration. American literature began in 



272 AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



Massachusetts, in the histories written by Bradford and Win- 
throp. The Bay Psalm Book was the first book published in 
America. Much verse of good motive but small merit was 
written, the longest piece being Wigglesworth's Day of Doom. 
Anne Bradstreet wrote the best of the colonial verse. The 
only book for children was the New England Primer. Cotton 
Mather was the last of the typical colonial ministers. SewalPs 
diary pictures colonial days. Edwards was the greatest 
preacher of the first half of the eighteenth century. He won 
world-wide fame as a metaphysician. Among the minor 
writers were Williams, Eliot, Ward, Bird, and Woolman. The 
passage of the Stamp Act in 1765 .marked the beginning of 
the second period of American literature, the literature of the 
Revolution. 



CHAPTER II 



THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 

I 765-1815 

11. Benjamin Franklin, 1706-1790. The Stamp Act 
was an electric shock to the colonists. They expected 
to be ruled for the benefit of the mother country, for 
that was the custom of the age ; but this Act they be- 
lieved to be illegal, and it aroused all their Anglo-Saxon 
wrath at injustice. There was small inclination now to 
write religious poems or histories of early days. Every 
one was talking about the present crisis. As time passed, 
orations and political writings flourished ; and satires and 
war songs had their place, followed by lengthy poems on 
the assured greatness and glory of America. 

At the first threat of a Stamp Act, Pennsylvania had 
sent one of her colonists to England to prevent its pas- 
sage if possible. This emissary was Benjamin Franklin, 
a Boston boy who had run away to Philadelphia. There 
he had become printer and publisher, and was widely 
known as a shrewd, successful business man, full of pub- 
lic spirit. He spent in all nearly eighteen years in Eng- 
land as agent of Pennsylvania and other colonies. On one 
of his visits home he signed the Declaration of Independ- 
ence. Almost immediately he was sent to France to 
secure French aid in our Revolutionary struggles. Then 
he returned to America, and spent the five years of life 
that remained to him in serving his country and the 
people about him in every way in his power. 



274 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



Such a record as this is almost enough for one man's 
life, but it was only a part of Franklin's work. He spe- 
ms versa- cialized in everything. His studies of electri- 
tmty. c j t y gained him honors from France and Eng- 
land. Harvard, Yale, Edinburgh, and Oxford gave him 




BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 
1 706- 1 790 



honorary degrees. He invented, among other things, the 
lightning-rod and the Franklin stove. He founded the 
Philadelphia Library, the University of Pennsylvania, 
and the American Philosophical Society. He it was 



THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 



275 



who first suggested a union of colonies, and he was our 
first postmaster-general. His motto seems to have been, 
" I will do everything I can, and as well as I can." 

When he was a boy in Boston, he wrote a ballad about 
a recent shipwreck, which sold in large numbers. "Verse- 
makers are usually beggars," declared his father ; and 
the young poet wrote no more ballads, for he intended 
to " get on " in life. A little later, he came across an 
odd volume of The Spectator, and was delighted with its 
clear, agreeable style. " I will imitate that," he said to 
himself ; so he took notes of some of the papers, His literary 
rewrote the essays from these, and then com- aims - 
pared his work with his model. After much of this prac- 
tice, he concluded that he " might in time come to be a 
tolerable English writer." 

The hardworking young printer had but a modest lit- 
erary ambition, but it met with generous fulfilment ; 
for if he had done nothing else, he would have won fame 
by his writings. These consist in great part of essays 
on historical, political, commercial, scientific, religious, 
and moral subjects. He had studied The Spectator to 
good purpose, for he rarely wrote a sentence that was 
not strong and vigorous, and, above all, clear. Whoever 
reads a paragraph of Franklin's writing knows exactly 
what the author meant to say. His first liter- Poor Rich- 

1 r • . 1 ard's Alma- 

ary glory came from neither poem nor essay, naCj 1732 _ 
but from Poor Richard's Almanac, a pamphlet 1757. 
which he published every autumn for twenty-five years. 
It was full of shrewd, practical advice on becoming well-to- 
do and respected and getting as much as possible out of 
life. The special charm of the book was that this advice 
was put in the form of proverbs or pithy rhymes, every 
one with a snap as well as a moral. "Be slow in choos- 
ing a friend, slower in changing." " Honesty is the best 



276 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



policy." " Great talkers are little doers." " Better slip 
with foot than tongue." "Doors and walls are fools' 
Autobio- P a P er -" Such was the tone of the famous lit- 
graphy, be- tie Almanac. Another of his writings, and one 
gun 1771. t k at . g Q £ interest to-day, is his Autobiography, 
which he wrote when he was sixty-five years of age. In 
it nothing is kept back. He tells us of his first arrival 
in Philadelphia, when he walked up Market Street, eat- 
ing a great roll and carrying another under each arm ; of 
his scheme for attaining moral perfection by cultivating 
one additional virtue each week, and of his surprise at find- 
ing himself more faulty than he had supposed ! The self- 
revelation of the author is so honest and frank that the 
book could hardly help being charming, even if it had 
been written about an uninteresting person ; but written, 
as it was, about a man so learned, so practical, so shrewd, 
so full of kindly humor as Benjamin Franklin, it is one 
of the most fascinating books of the century. 

12. Revolutionary oratory. Franklin's Autobiogra- 
phy was never finished, perhaps because the Revolution 
was at hand and there was little time for reminiscences. 
The minds of men were full of the struggles of the pre- 
sent and the hopes of the future. Most of the oratory 
James otis, of the time is lost. We can only imagine it 
1725-1783. f rom the chance words of appreciation of those 
who listened to it. There was Otis, whom John Adams 
called "a flame of fire." There was Richard Henry 
Richard ^ ee ' tne quiet thinker who blazed into the elo- 
HenryLee, quence of earnestness and sincerity, the man 
1732-1794. dared to move in Congress, "that these 
united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 
Patrick an< ^ independent states." There was Patrick 
Henry, Henry, that other Virginian, who began to speak 
1736-1799. s ^ g^yiy an( j stumblingly that a listener fancied 



THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 277 



him to be some country minister a little taken aback at 
addressing such an assembly. But soon that assembly 




PATRICK HENRY MAKING HIS TARQUIN AND CESAR SPEECH 



was thrilled with his ringing " I know not what course 
others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give 
me death! " 

13. Political writings. Those writers who favored 
peace and submission to England are no longer remem- 



278 AMERICA'S LITERATURE 

bered ; those who urged resistance even unto war will, in 
the success of that war, never be forgotten. Prominent 
Thomas among them was Thomas Paine, an English- 
Paine, man whom the wise Benjamin Franklin met in 

1737-1809 

England and induced to go to America in 1774. 
Two years later he published the most famous of his 
writings, Common Sense. This pamphlet told why its 
author believed in a separation from the mother country. 
More than that, its arguments were given so simply and 
clearly and logically that probably no other publication 
Thomas ^ a( ^ so mucn influence in bringing on the war. 
Jefferson, Thomas Jefferson was the author not only of 

the Declaration of hidependence, but of many 
strong pamphlets that aroused men's souls to the inevi- 
table bloodshed. It was he who, only a few days after 
the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, sug- 
gested the motto for the seal of the United States, E 
pluribus tinum ; and it is hard to see how a better one 
could have been found. George Washington would have 
George smiled gravely to see himself written down as 
ton S i732- one °^ tne u g nts °f literature; but his Farewell 
1799. Address, his letters, and his journals are not 
without literary value in their clearness and strength 
and dignity, in their noble expression of ennobling 
thoughts. 

At the close of the Revolution, the question of the 
hour was how the Republic should be organized and gov- 
TheFeder erneo ^- A number of political pamphlets had 
aiist, been written during the war; and now such 
1788-1789. wr itings became the main weapons of those 
into whose hands the formation of the Constitution had 
Alexander f anen - The best-known of these papers were 
Hamilton, written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and 
1757-1804. j arxies nvtadisori. They were collected and pub- 



4 



THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 279 

lished as The Federalist m 1788-1789, the time when the 
country was hesitating to adopt the Constitu- JohnJay 
tion. Here is an example of the straightfor- 1745-1829. 
ward, dignified, self-respecting manner in which Edison, 
they laid before the young nation the advan- 1751-1836. 
tages of the proposed method of electing a President : — 

The process of the election affords a moral certainty that the 
office of President will never fall to the lot of any man who is not 
in an eminent degree endowed with the requisite qualifications. 




MADISON JAY HAMILTON 

I/5I-1836 1745-1829 1757-1804 

THE AUTHORS OF THE FEDERALIST 



Talents for low intrigue, and the little arts of popularity, may alone 
suffice to elevate a man to the first honors in a single State ; bat 
it will require other talents, and a different kind of merit, to estab- 
lish him in the esteem and confidence of the whole Union, or of so 
considerable a portion of it, as would be necessary to make him a 
successful candidate for the distinguished office of President of the 
United States. It will not be too strong to say, that there will be 
a constant probability of seeing the station filled by characters pre- 
eminent for ability and virtue. 

14. The " Hartford Wits." The poets of Revolution- 
ary times chose the same subj ect as the prose writers. The 
poem might be a ballad on some recent event of the war, 



280 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



a satire, or a golden vision of the greatness which, in the 
imagination of the poet, his country had already attained ; 
but in one form or another the theme was ever " Our 
Country." A piece of literary work that falls in with 
the spirit of the times wins a contemporary fame whose 
reflection often remains much longer than the quality of 
the work would warrant. Among the writers of such 
poetry were the "Hartford Wits," as they were called, 
a group of Connecticut authors whose principal members 
were Timothy Dwight, John Trumbull, and Joel Barlow. 

Timothy Dwight was a grandson — and a worthy one — 
of Jonathan Edwards. In 1777 he was studying law, 
Timothy ^ut patriotism, and perhaps his inherited 
Dwight, tastes, turned him into a minister ; for the 
1752-1817. arm y nee d ec i chaplains. He was licensed to 
preach, and joined the Connecticut troops. Then it was 
Columbia, tnat ne wrote his Columbia, a patriotic song 
1777. which predicted in bold, swinging metre a mag- 
nificent future for the United States. He says : — 

As the day-spring unbounded, thy splendor shall flow, 
And earth's little kingdoms before thee shall bow : 
While the ensigns of union, in triumph unfurled, 
Hush the tumult of war and give peace to the world. 

He wrote an epic, called The Conquest of Canaan, 
The con- which is long, dull, and forgotten. He left 
Canaan many volumes and much manuscript ; but the 
1785. one piece of his work that has any real share 
in the life of to-day is his hymns, particularly his version 
of Psalm cxxxvii, beginning : — 

I love thy kingdom, Lord, 
The house of thine abode. 

John Trumbull's merry, good-natured face does not 
seem at all the proper physiognomy for a man who be- 



THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 28 1 



gan life as an infant prodigy and ended it as a judge of 
the superior court. When he was five years old, Jolm 
he listened to his father's lessons to a young Trumbull, 
man who was preparing for college, and then 1750 1831 ' 
said to his mother, "I'm going to study Latin, too." 
The result was that when he was seven, he passed his 
entrance examinations for Yale, sitting upon a man's 
knee, so the tradition says, because he was too little to 
reach the table. He was taken home, however, M » Fingal 
and did not enter college until he was thirteen. 1775. 
He wrote the best satire of the Revolutionary days, 
M'Fingal. His hero is a Tory. 

From Boston in his best array 
Great Squire M'Fingal took his way. 

The poem is a frank imitation of Hudibras, and, either 
luckily or unluckily for Trumbull's fame, some of his 
couplets are so good that they are often attributed to 
Butler. Among them are : — 

No man e'er felt the halter draw 
With good opinion of the law. 

But optics sharp it needs, I ween, 
To see what is not to be seen. 

The third of this group was Joel Barlow. In 1778 
he graduated from Yale. His part in the Joel Bar- 
Commencement programme was a poem, The JfJ^JjJJ 4 
Prospect of Peace. He was well qualified to 1812. 
write on such a subject, for he had had a fashion of 
slipping away to the army when his vacations came 
around, and doing a little fighting. Two years later, he 
followed the example of his friend Dwight, and became 
an army chaplain. After the war was over, he produced 



282 , AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



a poem, The Vision of Columbus, afterwards expanded 
The vision mto an e pic> The Columbiad. People were 
ofCoium- so carried away with its patriotism and its 
The' coium- sonorous phrases that they forgot to be critical, 
wad, 1807. anc [ the poem made its author famous. He is 
remembered now, however, by a merry little rhyme 
which he wrote on being served with hasty pudding in 
The Hasty Savoy. He takes for the motto of his poem the 
Pudding, dignified Latin sentiment, " Omne tulit punc- 
1796- turn qui miscuit utile dulci," and translates it 
delightfully, " He makes a good breakfast who mixes pud- 
ding with molasses." He thus apostrophizes the deli- 
cacy : — 

Dear Hasty Pudding, what unpromised joy 
Expands my heart, to meet thee in Savoy ! 
Doom'd o'er the world through devious paths to roam, 
Each clime my country and each house my home, 
My soul is soothed, my cares have found an end, 
I greet my long-lost, unforgotten friend. 

Poor Barlow ! aspiring to a national epic and remem- 
bered by nothing but a rhyme on hasty pudding ! 

15. Philip Preneau, 1752-1832. In the midst of 
these writers of unwieldy and long-forgotten epics was 
one man in whom there abode a real poetic talent, Philip 
Freneau, born in New York. His early poems were 
satires and songs, often of small literary merit, indeed, 
but with a ring and a swing that made them almost sing 
themselves. The boys in the streets, as well as the sol- 
diers in the camps, must have enjoyed shouting: — 

When a certain great king, whose initial is G, 

Forces Stamps upon paper, and folks to drink Tea; 

When these folks burn his tea and stampt paper, like stubble — 

You may guess that this king is then coming to trouble. 

When the war was over, verse that was neither epic, 



THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 283 

war song, nor satire had a chance to win appreciation. 
Freneau then published, in 1786, a volume of Poems> 
poems. In some of them there is a sincere 1 786. 
poetic tenderness and delicacy of touch ; for instance, in 
his memorial to the soldiers who fell at Eutaw Springs, 
he says : — 

Stranger, their humble graves adorn ; 

You too may fall, and ask a tear ; 
'T is not the beauty of the morn 

That proves the evening shall be clear. 

The lyric music rings even more melodiously in his Wild 
Honeystcckle, which ends : — 

From morning suns and evening dews 

At first thy little being came ; 
If nothing once, you nothing lose, 
For when you die you are the same ; 
The space between is but an hour, 
The frail duration of a flower. 

This year 1786 was the one in which Burns published 
his first volume, and the year in which he wrote of his 
"Wee, modest, crimson-tipped flower." Freneau was 
as free as Burns from the influence of Pope and his 
heroic couplet which had so dominated the poets of 
England for the greater part of the eighteenth century. 
He was no imitator ; and he had another of the distinc- 
tive marks of a true poet, — he could find the poetic 
where others found nothing but the prosaic. Before his 
time, the American Indian, for instance, had hardly ap- 
peared in literature ; Freneau was the first to see that 
there was something poetic in the pathos of a vanishing 
race. In all the rhyming of the two "centuries immedi- 
ately preceding 1800, there is nothing that gave such 
hope for the future of American poetry as some of the 
poems of Philip Freneau. 



284 AMERICA'S LITERATURE 

16. Charles Brockden Brown, 1771-1810. There was 
hope, too, for American prose, and in a new line, that of 
fiction ; for the Philadelphia writer, Charles Brockden 
wieiand, Brown, published in 1798 a novel entitled Wie- 
1798, land. It is full of mysterious voices, murders, 
and threatened murders, whose cause and explanation 
prove to be the power of a ventriloquist. The book was 
called " thrilling and exciting in the highest degree ; " 
but the twentieth-century reader cannot help wonder- 
ing why the afflicted family did not investigate matters 
and why the tormented heroine did not get a watch-dog. 
Then, too, comes the thought of what the genius of Poe 
could have done with such material. Nevertheless, there 
is undeniable talent in the book, and unmistakable pro- 
mise for the future. Some of the scenes, especially the 
last meeting between the heroine and her half-maniac 
brother, are powerfully drawn. Brown published several 
Arthur other novels, one of which, Arthur Mervyn } 
Mervyn, i s valued for its vivid descriptions of a visita- 

1799-1800. 

tion of the yellow fever to Philadelphia. Like 
Freneau, Brown saw in the Indian good material for 
literature ; but to him the red man was neither pathetic 
nor romantic, — he was simply a terrible danger of the 
western wilderness. 

During the fifty years of the Revolutionary period, the 
literary spirit had first manifested itself in the prac- 
tical, utilitarian prose of Franklin and the writers of 
The Federalist and other political pamphlets ; then in 
the patriotic satires and epics of the Hartford Wits. 
Finally, in the work of both Freneau and Brown there 
was manifest a looking forward to literature for litera- 
ture's sake, to a poetry that dreamed of the beautiful, to 
a prose that reached out toward the imaginative and the 
creative. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 



285 



The Revolutionary Period 



1 765-181 5 



Benjamin Franklin 
Thomas Paine 



Timothy Dwight 
John Trumbull 
Joel Barlow 



Thomas Jefferson 
George Washington 
The Federalist 



Philip Freneau 

Charles Brockden Brown 



SUMMARY 



The passage of the Stamp Act turned the literary activity 
of the colonists from history and religious poetry toward or- 
atory, political writings, satire, war songs, and patriotic poems. 
Franklin was the most Versatile man of his times. His work 
in politics, science, and literature deserved the honor which 
it received. His most popular publication was Poor Richard } s 
Almanac. His work of most interest to-day is his Autobio- 
graphy. The leading orators were Otis, Lee, and Henry. 
Some of the political writers were Paine, Jefferson, and Wash- 
ington. The Federalist contains many political essays by Ham- 
ilton, Jay, and Madison. Among the " Hartford W T its " were 
Dwight, the author of The Conquest of Canaan, but best known 
by his hymns; Trumbull, whose M 'Finga/ was the best satire 
of the Revolution ; and Barlow, who wrote an epic, The Co- 
iumbiad, but is best known by his rhyme, The Hasty Pud- 
ding. Freneau wrote poems that rank him above all other 
poets of the period. Brown's Wieland was the forerunner of 
the nineteenth-century novel. 



CHAPTER III 

THE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1815 — 

I. EARLIER YEARS, 1815-1865 
A. THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 

17. National progress. The last fifteen years of the 
Revolutionary period, from 1800 to 181 5, were marked 
by great events in America. New States were admitted 
to the Union ; the Louisiana Purchase made the United 
States twice as large as before ; the expedition of Lewis 
and Clark revealed the wonders and possibilities of the 
West ; Fulton's invention of the steamboat brought 
the different parts of the country nearer together ; the 
successes of the War of 18 12, particularly the naval 
victories, increased the republic's self-respect and sense 
of independence. This feeling was no whit lessened by 
the conquest of the Barbary pirates, to whom for three 
hundred years other Christian nations had been forced 
to pay tribute. Just as the great events of the sixteenth 
century aroused and inspired the Elizabethans, so the 
growth of the country, the victories, discoveries, and 
inventions of the first years of the nineteenth century 
aroused and inspired the Americans. There was rapid 
progress in all directions, and no slender part in this 
progress fell to the share of literature. 

18. The Knickerbocker School. During the Revo- 
lutionary period the literary centre had gradually moved 
from Massachusetts to Philadelphia. When the nine- 
teenth century began, a boy of seventeen was just leaving 
school whose talents were to do much to make New 
York, his birthplace and home, a literary centre. More- 



THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 287 



over, the name of one of his characters, Diedrich Knick- 
erbocker, has become a literary term ; for just as three 
English authors have been classed together as the Lake 
Poets because they chanced to live in the Lake Country, 




WASHINGTON IRVING 
1783-1859 

so the term Knickerbocker School has been found con- 
venient to apply to Irving, Cooper, Bryant, and the lesser 
writers who were at that time more or less connected 
with New York. 

19. Washington Irving, 1783-1859. This boy of sev- 
enteen was Washington Irving. He first distinguished 
himself by roaming about in the city and neighboring 
villages, while the town crier rang his bell and cried in- 



288 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



dustriously, "Child lost! Child lost!" After leaving 
school, he studied law; but he must have rejoiced when 
his family decided that the best way to improve his 
somewhat feeble health was to send him to Europe, far 
more of a journey in 1800 than a trip around the world 
in 1900. He wandered through France, Italy, and Eng- 
land, and enjoyed himself everywhere. When he re- 
turned to New York, nearly two years later, he was ad- 
mitted to the bar ; but he spent all his leisure hours on 
literature. The Spectator had the same attraction for 
him that it had had for Franklin. When he was nine- 
teen, he had written a few essays in a somewhat similar 
Saima- style ; and now he set to work with his brother 
gundi, William and a friend, James K. Paulding, to 
publish a Spectator of their own. They named 
it Salmagundi, and in the first number they calmly 
announced : — 

Our purpose is simply to instruct the young, reform the old, 
correct the town, and castigate the age ; this is an arduous task, 
and therefore we undertake it with confidence. 

The twenty numbers of this paper that appeared were 
bright, merry, and good-natured. Their wit had no 
sting, and they became popular in New York. The 
law practice must have suffered some neglect, for Ir- 
ving had another plan in his mind. One day a notice 
appeared in the Evening Post under the head of " Dis- 
tressing." It spoke of the disappearance of one Die- 
drich Knickerbocker. Other notices followed. One said, 
" A very curious kind of a written book has been found 
Knicker- m his room in his own handwriting." The way 

booker's was t nus prepared, and soon Knickerbocker s 
History of TT . . „_ _ _ 7 . . T 

New York, History of New York was on the market. It was 

1809 the most fascinating mingling of fun and sober 

history that can be conceived of, and was mischievously 



THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 289 



dedicated to the New York Historical Society. Every- 
body read it, and everybody laughed. Even the some- 
what aggrieved descendants of the Dutch colonists 
managed to smile politely. 

Knickerbocker s History brought its author three thou- 
sand dollars. His talent was recognized on both sides of 
the Atlantic, but for ten years he wrote nothing more. 
Finally he went to England in behalf of the business in 
which he and his brother had engaged. The business was 
a failure, but still he lingered in London. A government 
position in Washington was offered him, but he refused 
it. Then his friends lost all patience. He had but 
slender means, he was thirty-five years old, and if he was 
ever to do any literary work, it was time that he made 
a beginning. Irving felt "cast down, blighted, and 
broken-spirited," as he said ; but he roused himself to 
work, and soon he began to send manuscript to a New 
York publisher, to be brought out in numbers under the 
signature " Geoffrey Crayon." His friends no longer 
wished that he had taken the government position, for 
this work, the Sketch Book, was a glowing sue- The ^etch 
cess. Everybody liked it, and with good reason, Book, 
for among the essays and sketches, all of rare 
merit, were Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy 
Hollow. Praises were showered upon the author until 
he felt, as he wrote to a friend, " almost appalled by such 
success." Walter Scott, "that golden-hearted man," 
as Irving called him, brought about the publication of 
the book in England by Murray's famous publishing 
house. Its success there was as marked as in America, 
for at last a book had come from the New World that 
no one could refuse to accept as literature. The Amer- 
icans had not forgotten the sneer of the English critic, 
" Who reads an American book ? " and they gloried in 



290 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1822-1859 

their countryman's glory. The sale was so great that 
the publisher honorably presented the author with more 
than a thousand dollars beyond the amount that had 
been agreed upon. 

An enthusiastic welcome awaited Irving whenever he 
Brace- chose to cross the Atlantic, but he still lin- 
bridgeHaii, gered in Europe. In the next few years he 
Tales of a published Bracebridge Hall and Tales of a 
Traveller, Traveller. The latter was not very warmly 
received, for the public were clamoring for 
something new. Just as serenely as Scott had turned 
Life of Co- to fiction when people were tired of his poetry, 
lHa^The so I rvm g turned to history and biography. He 
Conquest of spent three years in Spain, and the result of 
1829. The those years was his Life of Columbus, The Con- 
lons'of 11 " Q ues t °f Granada, The Companions of Colum- 
Columbus, bus, and, last and most charming of all, The 
SSiST Alhambra. 

1832. Irving had now not only fame but an assured 

income. He returned to America, and there he found 
himself the man whom his country most delighted to 
honor. Once more he left her shores, to become min- 
ister to Spain for four years ; but, save for that absence, 
he spent the last twenty-seven years of his life in his 
charming cottage, Sunnyside, on the Hudson near Tar- 
rytown. He was not idle by any means. Among his 
Life of later works are his Life of Goldsmith and Life 
i849 Smlth ' °f Washington. In these biographies he had 
Life of two aims : to write truly and to write interest- 
ton S i855"- m gty- His style is always clear, marked by 
1859. exquisite gleams of humor, and so polished that 
a word can rarely be changed without spoiling the sen- 
tence. To this charm of style he adds in the case of his 
Life of Goldsmith such an atmosphere of friendliness, of 



1789-1851] THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 291 

comradeship, of perfect sympathy, that one has to recall 
dates in order to realize that the two men were not com- 
panions. No man's last years were ever more full of 




SUNNYSIDE 



honors than Irving's. The whole country loved him. 
As Thackeray said, his gate was " forever swinging be- 
fore visitors who came to him." Every one was wel- 
comed, and every one carried away kindly thoughts of 
the magician of the Hudson. 

20. James Fenimore Cooper, 1789-1851. About 
the time that the New York town crier was finding 
Irving's wanderings a source of income, a year-old baby, 
named James Fenimore Cooper, was taking a much 
longer journey. He travelled from his birthplace in 
Burlington, New Jersey, to what is now Cooperstown, 
New York, where his father owned several thousand 
acres of land and proposed to establish a village. The 
village was established, a handsome residence was built, 
and there, in the very heart of the wilderness, the boy 



292 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1789-1851 

spent his early years. He was used to the free life of 
the forest ; and it is small wonder that after he entered 
Yale, he found it rather difficult to obey orders and was 
sent home in disgrace. 

His next step was to spend four years at sea. Then 
he married, left the navy, and became a country gentle- 
man, with no more thought' of writing novels than many 




* JAMES FENIMORE COOPER 
1 789-185 1 

other country gentlemen. One day, after reading a story 
of English life, he exclaimed, " I believe I could write a 
better book myself." "Try it, then," retorted his wife 
playfully ; and he tried it. The result was Precaution. 



1820-1839] THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 293 



Unless the English novel was very poor, this book can 
hardly have been much of an improvement, for Precaution, 
it is decidedly dull. Another fault is its lack 1820 - 
of truth to life, for Cooper laid his scene in England in 
the midst of society that he knew nothing about. The 
book was anonymous. It was reprinted in England 
and was thought by some critics to be the work of an 
English writer. Americans of that day were so used 
to looking across the ocean for their literature that this 
mistake gave Cooper courage. Moreover, his friends 
stood by him generously. " Write another," they said, 
"and lay the scene in America." Cooper took up his 
pen again. The Spy was the result. Irving's The spy, 
Sketch Book had come out only a year or two 1821 - 
earlier, and now American critics were indeed jubilant. 
A novel whose scene was laid in America and during the 
American Revolution had been written by an ThePi0 . 
American and was a success in England. The neers, The 
bolder spirits began to whisper that American Pilot ' 1823, 
literature had really begun. Two years later, Cooper 
published The Pioneers, whose scene is laid in the for- 
est, and also The Pilot, a sea tale. 

There was little waiting for recognition. On both 
sides of the ocean his fame increased. He kept on writ- 
ing, and his eager audience kept on reading and begged 
for more. His books were translated into French, Ger- 
man, Norwegian, even into Arabic and Persian. Among 
them was his History of the United States Navy, History of 
which is still an authority. Some of his books s^at^ 1 ^ 
were very good) others were exceedingly poor. Navy,i839. 
The Leatherstocking Tales are his best work. The 
best character is Natty Bumppo, or Leatherstocking, 
the hunter and scout, whose achievements are traced 
through the five volumes of the series. 



294 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1789-1851 



Cooper spent several years abroad. When he re- 
turned, he found that the good folk of Cooperstown had 
cooper and l° n §." Deen using a piece of his land as a pleasure 
the courts ground. Cooper called them trespassers, and 
the courts agreed with him. The matter would have 
ended there had it not been a bad habit of Cooper's to 
criticise things and people as boldly as if he were the 
one person whose actions were above criticism. Of 
course he had not spared the newspapers, and now they 
did not spare him. He sued them for libel again and 
again. In one suit of this kind, the court had to hear 
his two-volume novel, Home as Fotind, read aloud in 
order to decide whether the criticisms in question were 
libellous or not. He often won his suits,, but he lost far 
more than he gained ; for, while Irving was loved by the 
whole country, Cooper made new enemies every day. 
Before his death he pledged his family to give no sight 
of his papers and no details of his home life to any future 
biographer who might ask for them. This is unfortunate, 
for Cooper was a man who always turned his rough 
side to the world ; but at least we can fall back upon 
the knowledge that the people who knew him best loved 
him most. 

Cooper's success was so immediate that he hardly 
realized the need of any thought or special preparation for 
Cooper's a ^ 00 ^ 5 therefore he wrote carelessly, often 
carelessness with most shiftless inattention to style or plot 
in writing. Qr consistency. Mark Twain is scarcely more 
than just when he declares that the rules governing lit- 
erary art require that " when a personage talks like an 
illustrated, gilt-edged, tree-calf, hand-tooled, seven-dollar 
Friendship's Offering in the beginning of a paragraph, 
he shall not talk like a negro minstrel in the end of it. 
But this rule is flung down and danced upon in the 



1794-1808] THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 295 

Deerslayer tale." On the other hand, something must 
be pardoned to rapid composition, to the wish for an 
effect rather than accuracy of detail ; and it is at best a 
most ungrateful task to pour out harsh criticism upon 
the man who has given us so many hours of downright 
pleasure, who has added to our literature two or three 
original characters, and who has brought into our libra- 
ries the salt breeze of the ocean and the rustling of the 
leaves of the forest. 

21. William Cullen Bryant, 1794-1878. America 
had now produced a writer of exquisite prose and a nov- 
elist of recognized ability, but had she a poet ? The 
answer to this question lay in the portfolio of a young 
man of hardly eighteen years, who was named William 
Cullen Bryant. 

He was born in Cummington, Massachusetts, the son 
of a country doctor. He was brought up almost as 
strictly as if he had been born in Plymouth a century 
and a half earlier. Still, there was much to enjoy in 
the quiet village life. There were occasional huskings, 
barn-raisings, and maple-sugar parties ; there were the 
woods and the fields and the brooks and the flowers. 
There were books, and there was a father who loved them. 
There was little money to spare in the simple country 
home, but good books had a habit of finding their way 
thither, and the boy was encouraged to read The 
poetry and to write it. Some of this encourage- Embargo, 
ment was perhaps hardly wise ; for when he pro- 1808, 
duced a satirical poem, The Embargo », the father straight- 
way had it put into print. 

When Bryant was sixteen, he entered Williams Col- 
lege as a sophomore. His reputation went before him, 
and it was whispered among the boys, " He has written 
poetry and some of it has been printed/' His college 



296 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1811-1818 

course was short, for the money gave out. . The boy was 
much disappointed, but he went home quietly and began 
to study law. He did not forget poetry, however, and 
Thanatop- then it was that Thanatopsis, the poem in the 
sis written, portfolio, was written. Six years later, Dr. 
lisned, Bryant came upon it by accident and recognized 
1817. j ts greatness at a glance. Without a word to 
his son, the proud father set out for Boston and left 
the manuscript at the rooms of the North American 
Revieiv, which had recently been established. Tradi- 
tion says that the editor who read it dropped the work 
in hand and hurried away to Cambridge to show his 
colleagues what a " find " he had made ; and that one 
of them, Richard Henry Dana, declared there was some 
fraud in the matter, for no one in America could write 
such verse. The least appreciative reader of the poem 
could hardly help feeling the solemn majesty, the organ- 
tone rhythm, the wide sweep of noble thought. Thana- 
topsis is a masterpiece. It went the country over ; and 
wherever it went, even in its earlier and less perfect 
form, it was welcomed as America's first great poem. 
Meanwhile, its author was practising as a lawyer in a 
little Massachusetts village. He was working conscien- 
tiously at his profession ; but fortunately he was not so 
fully employed as, to have no spare hours for poetry, and 
it was about this time that he wrote his beautiful lines, 
To a water- To a Waterfowl. This poem came straight 
fowl, 1818 f rom own heart, for he was troubled about 
his future, and, as he said, felt "very forlorn and deso- 
late." The last stanza, — 

He who, from zone to zone, 
Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight, 
In the long way that I must tread alone, 

Will lead my steps aright, — 



1821-1878] THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 297 

gave to him the comfort that it has given to many others, 
and he went on bravely. 

Dana soon brought it about that Bryant should be in- 
vited to read the annual poem before the Phi Beta Kappa 
Society at Harvard. The poem which he pre- The Ages, 
sented was The Ages. This, together with 1821 - 
Thanatopsis, To a Waterfowl, and four other poems, was 
published in a slender little volume, in 1821. 

Bryant was recognized as the first poet in the land, 
but even poets must buy bread and butter. Thus far, 
his poems had brought him a vast amount of praise and 
about two dollars apiece, and his law business had never 
given him a sufficient income. In 1825 he decided to 
accept a literary position that was offered him in New 
York. He soon became editor of The Evening Post, and 
this position he held for nearly fifty years. As an editor, 
he was absolutely independent, but always dignified and 
calm ; and he held his paper to a high literary standard. 
It was during those years that he wrote The Fringed 
Gentian, The Antiquity of Freedom, The Flood of Years, 
and other poems that our literature could ill afford to 
lose. He said that he had little choice among his poems. 
Irving liked The Rivulet; Halleck, The Apple Tree ; 
Dana, The Past. Bryant also translated the Iliad and 
the Odyssey. His life extended long after the lives of 
Irving and of Cooper had closed. Other poets had arisen 
in the land. They wrote on many themes ; he wrote on 
few save death and nature. Their verses were often 
more warm-hearted, more passionate than Bryant's, and 
often they were easier reading ; but Bryant never lost the 
place of honor and dignity that he had so fairly earned. 
He is the Father of American Poetry ; and it is well for 
American poetry that it can look back to the calmness 
and strength and poise of such a founder. Lowell says : — 



298 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1790-1820 

He is almost the one of your poets that knows 

How much grace, strength, and dignity lie in Repose. 

22. The minor Knickerbocker poets. Among the 
crowd of minor poets of the Knickerbocker School were 
Fitz-Greene Halleck, Drake, and Willis. Fitz-Greene Hal- 
Haiieck, leek was a Connecticut boy who went to New 
1790-1867. York when he was twenty-one years old. He 
found work in the counting-room of John Jacob Astor. 
He also found a poet friend in a young man named 
josepnRod- Joseph Rodman Drake. Together they wrote 
?^? c D ?o^» e A The Croakers, satirical poems on the New York 
The croak- of the day. These are rather bright and witty, 
ers, 1819. - t j g to realize that they won intense 

admiration. The story has been handed down that 
when the editor of the paper in which they appeared 
first met his unknown contributors, he exclaimed with 
enthusiasm, " I had no idea that we had such talent in 
America." It was from the friendship between Halleck 
and Drake that Drake's best known poem arose, The 
The Culprit Culprit Fay. If we may trust the tradition, 
Fay, 1816. the two poets, together with Cooper, were one 
day talking of America. Halleck and Cooper declared 
that it was impossible to find the poetry in American 
rivers that had been found in Scottish streams, but 
Drake took the contrary side. " I will prove it," he said 
to himself ; and within the next three days he produced 
his Culprit Fay, as dainty a bit of slight, graceful, imagi- 
native verse as can be found. The scene is laid in Fairy- 
land, and Fairyland is somewhere among the Highlands 
of the Hudson. The fairy hero loves a beautiful mortal, 
and, as a punishment, is doomed to penances 

TheAmeri- ' ^ ' . ^ . . .. 

can Flag, that give room for many poetic fancies and deli- 
1819, cate pictures. Drake died only four years later. 
He left behind him at least one other poem, first published 



1806-1867] THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 299 



in The Croakers, that will hardly be forgotten, The Amer- 
ican Flag, with its noble beginning : — 

When Freedom from her mountain height 
Unfurled her standard to the air. . 

Halleck sorrowed deeply for the death of his friend. 
He himself lived for nearly half a century longer and 
wrote many poems, but nothing else as good as his lov- 
ing tribute to Drake, which begins : — 

Green be the turf above thee, 

Friend of my better days ! 
None knew thee but to love thee, 

Nor named thee but to praise ! 

One other poem of Halleck's, Marco Bozzaris, has always 
been a favorite because of its vigor and spirit. Marco Boz- 
Bryant said, " The reading of Marco Bozzaris zaris ' 1825 - 
. . . stirs up my blood like the sound of martial music 
or the blast of a trumpet." Parts of it bring to mind 
the demand of King Olaf for a poem " with a sword in 
every line." Worn as these verses are by much de- 
claiming, there is still a good old martial ring in such 
lines as : — 

Strike — till the last armed foe expires ; 

Strike — for your altars and your fires ; 

Strike — for the green graves of your sires; 
God and your native land. 

At the end of this rousing war-cry are two lines that are 
as familiar as anything in the language : — 

One of the few, the immortal names 
That were not born to die. 

Another member of the Knickerbocker School was 
Nathaniel Parker Willis, a Maine boy who found Nathaniel 
his way to New York. He had hardly un- 
packed his trunk before it was decided that I8O6-1867. 
if he would go to Europe and send home a weekly 



300 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1835-1867 

letter for publication, it would be greatly to the ad- 
vantage of the journal with which he was connected. 
Pencimngs Europe was so distant as to make letters 
Dy the way, of travel interesting. These sketches, after- 
i835°- n ' wards published as Pencil lings by the Way, 
America, were light and graceful, and they were copied 
by scores of papers. When Willis came home, 
five years later, he edited the Home Journal, wrote 
pretty, imaginative sketches and many poems. There 
was nothing deep or thoughtful in them, rarely anything 
strong ; but they were easily and gracefully written and 
people liked to read them. A few of the poems, such 
as The Belfry Pigeon, Unseen Spirits, Saturday After- 
noon, and Parrhasius, are still favorites. 

While in college, Willis wrote a number of sacred 
poems. Lowell wickedly said of them, " Nobody likes 
Sacred inspiration and water." But Lowell was wrong, 
poems. for they found a large audience, and their 
author tasted all the sweets of popularity. He was not 
spoiled, however, and he was, as Halleck said, " one of 
the kindest of men." His own path to literary success 
had been smooth, but he was always ready to sympathize 
with the struggles of others and to aid them by every 
means in his power. He died in 1867 ; but many years 
before his death it was evident that the literary leader- 
ship had again fallen into the hands of New England. 

A. The Knickerbocker School 
Washington Irving Fitz-Greene Halleck 

James Fenimore Cooper $amuel Rodman Drake 

William Cullen Bryant Nathaniel Parker Willis 

SUMMARY 

The progress of the country during the early years of the 
century inspired progress in literature. The literary centre 



1815-1865] THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL 301 



had moved from Massachusetts to Philadelphia, but now New 
York began to hold the place of honor. The authors be- 
longing to the Knickerbocker School are Irving, Cooper, and 
Bryant, with the minor poets, Halleck, Drake, and Willis. 
Knickerbocker's History of New York made Irving somewhat 
known on both sides of the ocean, but his Sketch Book was 
the first American book to win a European reputation. He 
afterwards wrote much history and biography. Cooper at- 
tempted first an English novel, then wrote The Spy, which 
made him famous in both England and America. He wrote 
many other tales of the forest and the ocean. He was pop- 
ular as a novelist, but unpopular as a man. The third great 
writer of the Knickerbocker School was Bryant. He wrote 
his masterpiece, Thanatopsis, before he was eighteen. His 
early poems were highly praised, but brought him little money. 
He was editor of The Evening Post for nearly fifty years, 
wrote many poems, and translated the Iliad and the Odyssey. 
He was the Father of American Poetry. Among the minor 
Knickerbocker Poets were Halleck, Drake, and Willis. Long 
before the death of Willis, it was evident that the literary 
centre was again to be found in New England. 



CHAPTER IV 



THE NATIONAL .PERIOD, 1815 — 

I. EARLIER YEARS, 1815-1865 
B. THE TRANSCENDENT ALISTS 

23. The Transcendentalists. Before the year 1840 
had arrived, a remarkable group of writers of New Eng- 
land ancestry and birth had begun their work. They 
were fortunate in more than one way. They had the in- 
spiration of knowing that good literature had already 
been written in America; and they had the stimulus 
arising from a movement, or manner of thought, known 
as transcendentalism. This movement began in Ger- 
many, was felt first in England and then in America, in- 
troduced by the works of Carlyle and Coleridge. Three 
of its " notes " were: (1) There are ideas in the human 
mind that were "born there" and were not acquired 
by experience ; (2) Thought is the only reality ; (3) 
Every one must do his own thinking. The Transcen- 
dental Club was formed, and the new movement had its 
literary organ, The Dial, whose first editor was the bril- 
liant Margaret Fuller. It had also its representatives 
in the pulpit, for the persuasive charm of William El- 
lery Channing and the impassioned eloquence of Theo- 
dore Parker were employed to proclaim the new gospel. 
Another advocate was Amos Bronson Alcott, gentle, 
visionary, and immovable, who is so well pictured in the 
opening chapters of his daughter's Little Women. 

The first thrill of all new movements leads to extremes, 
and transcendentalism was no exception. Freedom ! Re- 



1799-190O THE TRANSCENDENTALISTS a°3 

form ! was the war-cry ; and to those who were inclined 
to act first and think afterwards, the new im- influence 
pulse was merely an incitement to tear down the scenden . 
fences. There were wild projects and fantastic talism - 
schemes innumerable. A sense of humor would have 
guided and controlled much of this unbalanced enthusi- 
asm ; but it is only great men like Lincoln who can see 
any fellowship between humor and earnestness. The 
very people who were to profit by this movement were 




CHANNING PARKER ALCOTT 

1780-1842 l8lO-l,86o 1799-1888 

THREE TRANSCENDENTALISTS 



the loudest laughers at these dreamers who gazed in 
rapture upon the planets and sometimes stubbed their 
toes against the pebbles. Nevertheless, the ripened fruits 
of transcendentalism were in their degree like those of 
the Renaissance ; it widened the horizon and it inspired 
men with courage to think for themselves and to live 
their own lives. This atmosphere of freedom had a 
noble effect upon literature. Two of the authors of the 
New England group, the poet-philosopher Emerson and 
the poet-naturalist Thoreau, were so imbued with its spirit 
that in literary classifications they are usually ranked as 



304 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1803-1882 



the transcendentalists ; and Hawthorne is often classed 
with them, partly by virtue of a few months' connection 
with a transcendental scheme, and even more because 
in his romances the thought and the spirit are so much 
more real than the deeds by which they are manifested 
and symbolized. 

24. Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803-1882. The poet- 
philosopher was one of five boys who lived with their 
widowed mother in Boston. They were poor, for clergy- 
men do not amass fortunes, and their father had been 
no exception to the rule. The famous First Church, 
however, of which he had been in charge, did not forget 
the family of their beloved minister. Now and then 
other kind friends gave a bit of help. Once a cow was 
lent them, and every morning the boys drove her down 
Beacon Hill to pasture. In spite of their pcfverty it 
never entered the mind of any member of the family 
that the children could grow up without an education. 
Four of the boys graduated at Harvard. The oldest son, 
who was then a sedate gentleman of twenty, opened a 
school for young ladies ; and his brother Ralph, two 
years younger, became his assistant. The evenings were 
free, and the young man of eighteen was even then jot- 
ting down the thoughts that he was to use many years 
later in his essay, Compensation. He was a descendant 
Enters the of eight generations of ministers, and there 
ministry. seems to have been in his mind hardly a 
thought of entering any other profession than the min- 
istry. A minister he became ; but a few years later he 
told his congregation frankly that his belief differed on 
one or two points from theirs and it seemed to him best 
to resign. They urged him to remain with them, but he 
did not think it wise to do so. 

A year later he went to Europe for his health. He 



1 83 7] THE TRANSCENDENTALISTS 305 



wanted to see three or four men rather than places, he 
said. He met Coleridge and Wordsworth ; and Friendship 
then he sought out the lonely little farm of ™ ith 

Carlyle 

Craigenputtock, the home of Carlyle. His 
coming was "like the visit of an angel," said the Scotch 
philosopher to Longfellow. The two men became friends, 
and the friendship lasted as long as their lives. 

When Emerson came back to America, he made his 
home in Concord, Massachusetts, but for a long while he 
was almost as much at home on railroad trains and in 
stages. Those were the times when people were eager to 
hear from the lecture platform what the best thinkers of 
the day could tell them. In 1837 Emerson delivered at 
Harvard his Phi Beta Kappa address entitled TneAmeri- 
The A.7fieYiccifi Scholar / and then for the first gghoiar 
time the American people were told seriously 1837. 
and with dignity that they must no longer listen to "the 
courtly muses of Europe." "We will walk on our own 
feet ; we will work with our own hands ; we will speak 
our own minds," said Emerson. These last words were 
the keynote of his message to the world. Whoever 
listens may hear the voice of God, he declared ; and for 
that reason each person's individuality was sacred to 
him. Therefore it was that he met every man with a 
gently expectant deference that was far above the ordi- 
nary courtesy of society. A humble working woman 
once said that she did not understand his lectures, but 
she liked to go to them and see him look as if he thought 
everybody else just as good as he. On the lecture 
platform Emerson's manner was that of one who was 
trying to interpret what had been told to him, of one 
who was striving to put his thoughts into a language 
which had no words to express them fully. 

Some parts of Emerson's writings are simple enough 



306 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [i 8 17-1862 

for a little child to understand ; other parts perhaps no 
Literary one but their author has fully comprehended, 
style. it is not easy to make an outline of his essays. 
Every sentence, instead of opening the gate for the next, 
as in Macaulay's prose, seems to stand alone. Emerson 
said with truth, "I build my house of boulders." The 
connection is not in the words, but in a subtle under- 
current of thought. The best way to enjoy his writings 
is to turn the pages of some one of his simpler essays, 
How to Compensation, for instance, that he planned 
enjoy when a young man of eighteen, and read what- 
Emerson. ever str jk es e y e When one has read : 

"'What will you have?' quoth God; 'pay for it and 
take it,'" — "The borrower runs in his own debt," — 
"The thief steals from himself," — "A great man is 
always willing to be little ; " — when one has read a few 
such sentences, he cannot help wishing to begin at the 
beginning to see how they come in. Then let him take 
from each essay that he reads the part that belongs to 
him, and leave the rest until its day and moment have 
fully come. 

Among Emerson's poems, Each and All, The Rho- 
dora, The Humblebee, The Snow-Storm, Forbearance, 
Emerson's Woodnotes, The Mountain and the Squirrel, 
poems. The Concord Fight, and The Boston Hymn 
are all easy and all well worth knowing by heart. He 
who has learned this handful of poems has met their 
author face to face, and can hardly fail to have gained a 
friendliness for him that will serve as his best interpreter. 

25. Henry David Thoreau, 1817-1862. In that 
same village of Concord was a young man named 
Thoreau who was a great puzzle to his neighbors. He 
had graduated at Harvard, but he took no step to be- 
come clergyman, lawyer, physician, or teacher. He 



1817-1862] THE TRANSCENDENTALISTS 



307 



wrote and sometimes he lectured ; he read many books ; 
and he spent a great deal of time out of doors. His 
father was a maker of lead pencils, and the son also 
learned the trade. Before 
long he made them bet- 
ter than the father ; then 
he made them equal to 
the best that were im- 
ported. " There is a for- 
tune for you in those pen- 
cils," declared his friends ; 
but the young man made 
no more. "Why should 
I?" he queried. " I would 
not do again what I have 
done once." 

Thoreau loved his fam- 
ily, little children, and a 
few good friends ; but not 
a straw did he care about 
people in the mass. Em- 
erson said of him that his soul was made for the noblest 
society ; but when he was about twenty-eight, he built 
himself a tiny cottage on the shore of Walden Home at 
Pond, and there he lived for the greater part of waiaen 
two years and a half. He kept a journal, and Pond ' 
in this he noted when the first bluebird appeared, how 
the little twigs changed in color at the coming of the 
spring, and many other " common sights." He knew 
every nOok and cranny of the rocks, every bend of the 
stream, every curve of the shore. The little wild crea- 
tures had no fear of him ; the red squirrels played about 
his feet as he wrote ; the flowers seemed to hasten their 
blooming to meet the dates of his last year's diary. He 




HENRY DAVID THOREAU 
1817-1862 



308 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1839 

told Emerson that if he waked up from a trance in his 
favorite swamp, he could tell by the plants what time 
of year it was within two days. He could find his way 
through the woods at night by the feeling of the ground 
to his feet. He saw everything around him. " Where 
can arrowheads be found ? " he was asked. " Here," 
was his reply, as he stooped and picked one up. It is no 
wonder that he felt small patience with the blindness of 
other folk. " I have never yet met a man who was quite 
awake," he declared. He loved trees, and once, when 
the woodchoppers had done their worst, he exclaimed 
devoutly, "Thank God, they cannot cut down the 
clouds." 

He found so much to enjoy that he could not bear to 
give his time to any profession. To be free, to read, 
and to live with nature, — that was happiness. " A man 
is rich in proportion to the number of things which he 
can afford to let alone," declared this philosopher of the 
wilderness. The few things that he could not "let 
alone," he supplied easily by the work of his hands. 
Emerson said that he himself could split a shingle four 
ways with one nail ; but Thoreau could make a bookcase 
or a chest or a table or almost anything else. He knew 
more about gardening than any of the farmers around 
him. Six weeks of work in some one of these lines 
supplied his needs for the rest of the year ; then he 
was free. 

In 1839 he made a boat, and in it he and his brother 
voyaged up the Concord and Merrimack rivers. He 
was still in the habit of keeping a journal, and he wrote 
in it an account of the trip. This is something more 
than a guide-book, for on one page is a disquisition on 
the habits of the pickerel ; on another a discourse on 
friendship or Chaucer or the ruins of Egypt, as it may 



1849] THE TRANSCENDENTALISTS 3P9 



chance. Occasionally there is a poem, sometimes with 
such a fine bit of description as this, written of the effect 
of the clear light of sunset : — 

Mountains and trees 
Stand as they were on air graven. 

Of a churlish man whom he met in the mountains he 
wrote serenely, " I suffered him to pass for what he was, 
— for why should I quarrel with nature? — and was 
even pleased at the discovery of such a singular natural 
phenomenon." Thoreau is always interesting. What 
he says has ever the charm of the straightforward 
thought of a wise, honest, widely read, and keenly 
observant man ; but he is most delightful when his 
knowledge of nature and his tender, sympathetic humor 
are combined ; as, for instance, in his little talk about 
the shad, that, "armed only with innocence and a just 
cause," are ever finding a " corporation with its dam " 
blocking the way to their old haunts. " Keep a stiff 
fin," he says cheerily, " and stem all the tides thou mayst 
meet." 

These quotations are all taken from his journal of the 
little voyage, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack 
Rivers, as it is called. He prepared it for the . m , 

' . r r A Week on 

press, and offered it to publisher after pub- the concord 
lisher; but no one was willing to run the finan- ^imaST" 
cial risk of putting it into print. At last he Rivers, 
published one thousand copies at his own ex- 1849, 
pense. Four years later, 706 unsold volumes were re- 
turned to him. He wrote in his journal, " I have now a 
library of nearly 900 volumes, over 700 of which I wrote 
myself." Then he calmly went to work at surveying to 
finish paying the printer's bills. 

Only one other volume of Thoreau's writings, Walden, 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1804-1864 



was published during his life ; but critics discovered, one 
waiden one > tnat n ^ s wide reading, his minute know- 

1854. ledge of nature, his warm sympathy with every 
living creature, and his ability to put his knowledge and 
his thoughts on paper, were a rare combination of gifts. 



r 




THOREAU'S HOUSE AT WALDEN 

His thirty volumes of manuscript journals were carefully 
read, and the greater part of them published ; but not 
until Thoreau had been dead for many years. 

26. Nathaniel Hawthorne, 1804^1864. The con- 
nection of Hawthorne with the transcendentalists came 
Brook Farm aDOut through his joining what was known as the 
1841. Brook Farm project. A company of "dream- 
ers " united in buying this farm in the expectation that it 
could be carried on with profit if they all worked a few 



i82 5 ] 



THE TRANSCEN DEN TALI STS 



311 



hours each day. The rest of the time they were to have 
for social enjoyment and intellectual pursuits. Haw- 
thorne was engaged to a brilliant, charming woman, and 
he hoped to be able to make a home for them at Brook 
Farm. The project failed, but he married and went to 
live at the Old Manse in Concord, to find perfect hap- 
piness in his home, and to work his way toward literary 
fame. 

He had led a singular life. When he was four years 
old, his father, a sea-captain, died in South America. 
His mother shut herself away from the outside Haw . 
world and almost from her own family. The thome's 
little boy was sent to school ; but soon a foot- 
ball injury confined him to the silent house for two years. 
There was little to do but 
read ; and he read from 
morning till night. Frois- 
sart, Pilgrim s Progress, 
and Spenser carried him 
away to the realms of the 
imagination, and made 
the long days a delight. 
At last he was well again ; 
and then came one glori- 
ous year by Sebago Lake, 
where he wandered at his 
will in the grand old for- 
ests of Maine. He gradu- 
ated at Bowdoin College 
in the famous class of 
1825. There were names 
among those college boys 

that their bearers were afterwards to make famous : Henry 
W. Longfellow, J. S. C. Abbott, George B. Cheever, and 




NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE 
1S04-1864 



312 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1837-1846 



Horatio Bridge ; and in the preceding class was Frank- 
lin Pierce. The last two became Hawthorne's warmest 
friends. 

Graduation separated him from his college compan- 
ions ; indeed, for twelve years he was isolated from 
almost every one. He had returned to his home in 
Salem. His older sister had become nearly as much of 
a recluse as her mother. Interruptions were almost un- 
known, and the young man wrote and read by day and 
by night.' He published a novel which he was after- 
wards glad did not sell. He wrote many short stories. 
Most of them he burned ; some he sent to various pub- 
lishers. At the end of the twelve years, Bridge urged 
him to publish his stories in a volume, and offered to 
Twice- ^ e responsible for the expense. This book was 
Tom Tales, the Twice-Told Tales. Soon after his mar- 

1837 • 

Tales, riage he published the second series of Tales, 
second an( j a f ew years later, Mosses from an Old 

series, 

1842. Manse. Most people who read these stories 
Mosses were pleased with them, but few recognized in 

from an 1 & 

Old Manse, their author the promise of a great romancer, 
1846. Meanwhile, the romancer needed an income, 
and he was glad to retain the Custom House position 
in Boston that George Bancroft had secured for him. 
After a while he was transferred to the Salem Custom 
House. Then came a change in political power, and 
one day he had to tell his wife that he had been thrown 
out of his position. "I am glad," she said, "for now 
you can write your book." She produced a sum of 
money which she had been quietly saving for some such 
emergency, and her husband took up his pen with all 
good cheer. Not many months later, "a big man with 
brown beard and shining eyes, who bubbled over with 
enthusiasm and fun," knocked at the door. He was 



1850-1860] THE TRANSCENDENTALISTS 



313 



James T. Fields, the publisher. He had read the manu- 
script, and he had come to tell its author what a mag- 
nificent piece of work it was. " It is the greatest book 
of the age," he declared. Even Fields, however, did not 
know what appreciation it would meet, and he did not 
stereotype it. The result was that, two weeks after its 
publication, the type had to be reset, for the whole edi- 
tion had been sold. This book was The Scarlet The 
Letter, that marvellous' picture of the stern old scarlet 

. Letter, 

Puritan days, softened and illumined by the 1850. 
touch of a genius. One need not fear to say that it is 
still the greatest American book. 

Hawthorne had now come to the atmosphere of appre- 
ciation that inspired him to do his best work. TneHouse 
Within three short years he wrote The House of of the seven 
the Seven Gables, a book of weird, pathetic humor £J5l* 8 ' 
and flashes of everyday sunshine. Then came Tne Won " 

der-Book, 

The Wonder-Book, the little volume that is so i85i. 

dear to the hearts of children. The Blithedale JJiithedaie 

Romance, 

Romance followed, whose suggestion arose from 1852. 
the months at Brook Farm. The life of his £?® c ° e f 
dear friend, Franklin Pierce, and Tanglewood 1852. 
Tales came next, — a glorious record for less woodTaies, 
than three years. 1853 - 

Franklin Pierce had become President, and he ap- 
pointed his old friend consul at Liverpool. Four years of 
the consulship and three years of travel resulted The Marble 
in the Note-Books and The Marble Fann, the Faun, 
fourth of his great romances. Four years after 1860 ' 
its publication, Hawthorne died. 

It is as difficult to compare Hawthorne's romances 
with the novels of other writers of fiction as to compare 
a strain of music with a painting, for their aims are entirely 
different. Novelists strive to make their characters life- 



3H 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1804-1864 



like, to surround them with difficulties, and to keep the 

Difference reader in suspense as to the outcome of the 

between struggle. Hawthorne' s characters are clearly 
Hawthorne , , , , • J 

and other outlined, but they seem to belong to a differ- 

noveiists. ent wor ld. We could talk freely with Rip Van 

Winkle, but we should hardly know what to say to 

Clifford or Hepzibah, or even to Phebe. Nor are the 

endings of Hawthorne's books of supreme interest. The 

fact that four people in The House of the Seven Gables 

finally come to their own is not the most impressive fact 

of the story. 

Hawthorne's power lies primarily in his knowledge of 
the human heart and in his ability to trace step by step 
Haw- ^ ne e ^ ect u P on it of a single action. His charm 
thorne's comes from a humor so delicate that sometimes 
we hardly realize its presence ; from a style so 
artistic that it is almost without flaw ; from a manner of 
treating the supernatural that is purely his own. He 
has no clumsy ventriloquistic trickery like Brown ; he 
gives the suggestive hint that sets our own fancy to 
work, then with a half smile he quietly offers us the 
choice of a matter-of-fact explanation, — which, of course, 
we refuse to accept. But the magic that removes Haw- 
thorne's stories farthest from everyday life is the differ- 
ent atmosphere in which they seem to exist. The char- 
acters are real people, but they are seen through the 
thought of the romancer. In The House of the Seven 
Gables, Hawthorne ponders on how "the wrong-doing 
of one generation lives into the successive ones;" and 
everything is seen through the medium of that thought. 
No other American author has shown such profound 
knowledge of the human heart or has put that knowledge 
into words with so accurate and delicate a touch. No 
one else has treated the supernatural in so fascinating a 



1815-1865] THE TRANSCENDENTALISTS 315 

manner or has mingled so gracefully the prosaic and the 
ideal. No one else has manifested such perfection of 
literary style. Longfellow has well said : — 

Ah ! who shall lift that wand of magic power, 

And the lost clew regain ? 
The unfinished window in Aladdin's tower 

Unfinished must remain ! 

B. The Transcendentalists 

Ralph Waldo Emerson 
Henry David Thoreau 
Nathaniel Hawthorne 

SUMMARY 

Transcendentalism had a strong effect upon New England 
literature. Its literary organ was The Dial. Among its 
special advocates were Channing, Parker, and Alcott. It 
aroused at first much unbalanced enthusiasm ; but later it 
led toward freedom of thought and of life. Emerson and 
Thoreau are counted as the transcendentalists of American 
literature. Hawthorne is often classed with them. 

Emerson became a minister, but resigned because of disa- 
greement with the belief of his church. He delivered many 
lectures. His Phi Beta Kappa oration in 1837 was an " in- 
tellectual Declaration of Independence." Respect for one's 
own individuality was the keynote of his teaching. 

Thoreau cared little for people in the mass, but loved his 
friends and nature. His Week on the Concord and Merrimack 
Rivers and Walden were published during his lifetime. The 
value of his work as author and naturalist was not fully 
appreciated until long after his death. 

Hawthorne was connected with the transcendentalists 
through the Brook Farm project and the spirit of his writings. 
His early life was singularly lonely, though he made warm 
friends in college. For twelve years after graduation, he was 
a literary recluse. Losing his position in the Salem Custom 
House, he produced The Scarlet Letter, which made him 



3i6 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1815-1865 



famous. Other works followed. Seven years abroad as con- 
sul resulted in the Note-Books and The Marble Faun. In 
American literature he is unequalled for knowledge of the 
human heart, for fascinating treatment of the supernatural, 
for graceful mingling of the prosaic and the ideal, and for 
perfection of literary style. 



CHAPTER V 

THE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1815— 

I. EARLIER YEARS, 1815-1865 
C. THE ANTI-SLAVERY WRITERS 

27. The Anti-slavery movement. Side by side with 
the transcendental movement was a second which 
strongly affected literature, the anti-slavery movement. 
The second was the logical companion of the first. " Let 
every man be free to live his own life," proclaimed the 
transcendentalists. " How can a man be free to live his 
own life if he is held in bondage ? " retorted the anti- 
slavery advocates. After the struggle concerning the 
extension of slavery which resulted in the Missouri Com- 
promise of 1820, the subject had been gradually dropped. 
To be sure, the Quakers were still unmoved in their op- 
position, but the masses of the people in the free States 
had come to feel that to attempt to break up slavery 
was to threaten the very existence of the Union. The 
revival of the question was due to William Lloyd Gar- 
rison, who took this ground. Slavery is wrong ; therefore 
every slave should be freed at once, and God will take 
care of the consequences. This was a direct challenge 
to the conscience of every man in the nation. It was 
complicated by questions of social safety and of business 
and financial interests as well as by sympathetic and 
sectional feelings. There was no dearth of material for 
thought, discussion, and literature. 

Among the many New England writers whose names 
will ever be associated with the emancipation of the 



318 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1807-1892 

slave are the poet Whittier and the novelist Harriet 
Beecher Stowe. 

28. John Greenleaf Whittier, 1807-1892. In a 

quiet Quaker farmhouse in the town of Haverhill, there 
lived a boy who longed for boojcs and school, but had to 
stay at home and work on the farm. The family library 
consisted of about thirty volumes, chiefly the lives of 
prominent Quakers. The boy read these over and over 
and even made a catalogue of them in rhyme. One day 
the schoolmaster came to the house with a copy of 
Burns's poems in his pocket. He read aloud poem after 
poem, and the bright-eyed boy listened as if his mind 
had been starved. " Shall I lend it to you ? " the master 
asked, and the boy took the book gratefully. After a 
while he paid a visit to Boston and came home happy but 
a little conscience-smitten, for he had bought a copy of 
Shakespeare, and he knew that Quakers did not approve 
of plays. 

Gne day when the boy and his father were mending 
a stone wall, a man rode by distributing Garrison's Free 
Press to its subscribers. He tossed a paper to the boy, 
who glanced from page to page, looking especially, as 
First printed was n ^ s wont, at the corner where the poetry 
poem. was usually printed. He read there " The 
Exile's Departure." "Thee had better put up the paper 
and go to work," said his father ; but still the boy gazed, 
for the poem was signed "W.," and it was his own! 
His older sister Mary had quietly sent it to the editor 
without saying anything to her brother. The next scene 
was like a fairy story. Not long afterwards a carriage 
stopped at the door. A young man, well dressed and 
with the easy manner of one used to society, inquired 
for his new contributor. " I can't go in," declared the shy 
poet. "Thee must," said the sister Mary. Mr. Garrison 



1 866] THE ANTI-SLAVERY WRITERS 319 



told the family that the son had "true poetic genius," 
and that he ought to have an education. "Don't thee 
put such notions into the boy's head," said the father, 
for he saw no way to afford even a single term at school. 
A way was arranged, however, by which the young man 
could pay his board ; and he had one year at an acad- 
emy. This was almost his only schooling, but he was 
an eager student all the days of his life. 

Through Garrison's influence an opportunity to do 
editorial work was offered him. He became deeply inter- 
ested in public matters. The very air was tin- Editorial 
gling with the question : Slavery or no slavery ? work. 
He threw the whole force of his thought and his pen 
against slavery. From the peace-loving Quaker came 
lyrics that were like the clashing of swords. 

The years passed swiftly, and Whittier gained reputa- 
tion as a poet slowly. He published several early vol- 
umes of poems, but it was not until 1866 that he really 
touched the heart of the country, for then he published 
Snow-Bound. There are poems by scores that snow- 
portray passing moods or tell interesting stories Bound » 

1866. 

or describe beautiful scenes ; but, save for The 
Cotter s Saturday Nighty there is hardly another that gives 
so vivid a picture of home life. We almost feel the chill 
in the air before the coming storm ; we fancy that we are 
with the gro'up who sit " the clean-winged hearth about : " 
we listen to the "tales of witchcraft old," the stories of 
Indian attacks, of life in the logging camps ; we see the 
schoolmaster, the Dartmouth boy who is teasing "the 
mitten-blinded cat" and telling of college pranks. The 
mother turns her wheel, and the days pass till the storm is 
over and the roads are open. The poem is true, simple, 
and vivid, and it is full of such phrases as " the sun, a 
snow-blown traveller ; " " the great throat of the chimney 



320 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1866 

laughed;" "between the andirons' straddling feet," — 
phrases that outline a picture with the sure and certain 
touch of a master. The poem is "real," but with the 
reality given by the brush of an artist. Snow-Bound is 
Whittier's masterpiece ; but The Eternal Goodness and 




THE KITCHEN OF " SNOW-BOUND " 



some of his ballads, The Barefoot Boy, In School-Days, 
Among the Hills, Telling the Bees, and a few other poems, 
come so close to the heart that they can never be for- 
gotten. 

Whittier was always fond of children. The story is 
told that he came from the pine woods one day with his 
pet, Phebe, and said merrily, " Phebe is seventy, I am 
seven, and we both act like sixty." He lived to see his 
eighty-fifth birthday in the midst of love and honors. One 
who was near him when the end came tells us that among 
his last whispered words were " Love to the world." 

29. Harriet Beecher Stowe, 1811-1896. When the 
future novelist was a child in school in Litchfield, Con- 



1811-1852] THE ANTI-SLAVERY WRITERS 321 

necticut, her father, Dr. Beecher, one day went to visit the 
academy. Classes were ca]led up to recite ; then com- 
positions were read. One of these was on this subject : 
" Can the Immortality of the Soul be proved from the 
Light of Nature ? " It was remarkably well written, and 
Dr. Beecher asked quickly, "Who wrote that? " "Your 
daughter, sir," was the reply of the teacher. This 
daughter was then a girl of only twelve ; and it is hardly 
surprising that when she was fourteen she was teaching 
a class in Butler's A?ialogy in her sister's school in Hart- 
ford. She taught and studied until she was twenty-four. 
She compiled a small geography, but the idea of writing 
a novel seems not to have entered her mind. 

At twenty-four Harriet Beecher became Harriet 
Beecher Stowe by her marriage to Prof. C. E. Stowe. 
In their Cincinnati home they heard many stories from 
runaway slaves who had crossed the Ohio River to escape 
to a free State. After some years her husband was 
called to Bowdoin College, but the stories lingered in 
her mind ; and in 1852 her Uncle Toms Cabin uncle 
was published in book form. It had received cawn, 
no special attention in coming out as a serial, 1852 - 
but its sale as a book was astounding, — half a million 
copies in the United States alone within five years. 
The sale in other countries was enormous, and the work 
has been translated into more than twenty languages. 

There were several reasons for this remarkable sale. 
To be sure, the book was carelessly written and is of 
unequal excellence ; its plot is of small interest cause 01 its 
and is loosely connected. On the other hand, lar e esale - 
its humor is irresistible ; its pathos is really pathetic ; 
and some of its characters are so vividly painted that 
the names of two or three have become a part of every- 
day speech. Moreover, it came straight from the au- 



322 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1859-1869 

thor's heart, for she believed every word that she wrote. 
Another reason, and the strongest reason, for its large 
immediate sales, was the condition of affairs in the 
United States at the time when it was issued. It was 
only nine years before the opening of the Civil War. 
The South protested, "This book is an utterly false' 
representation of the life of the Southern States." The 
North retorted, " We believe that it is true." And 
meanwhile, every one wanted to read it. The feeling 
on both sides grew more and more intense. When 
President Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, " Is this the 
little woman who made this great war?" 

Mrs. Stowe wrote a number of other books. Her best 
literary success was in her New England stories, The 
Minister s Wooing, The Pearl of Orrs Island, 
ister's woo- an d Oldtown Folks. She wrote in the midst 
ing, 1859. f difficulties. One of her friends has given us 

The Pearl . ■ . & 

of orr's an amusing account of her dictating a story in 
IofS d A,i, the kitchen, with the inkstand on the teakettle, 
townFoiks, the latest baby in the clothes basket, the table ■ 

loaded with all the paraphernalia of cooking, 
and an unskilled servant making constant appeals for 
direction in her work. More than one of Mrs. Stowe's 
books were written in surroundings much like these. It 
is no wonder that she left punctuation to the printer. 

30. Oratory. It was in great degree the question of 
slavery that made the New England of this period so 
rich in orators. Feeling became more and more intense. 
The printed page could not express it ; the man must 
come face to face with the people whom he was burning 
to convince. The power to move an audience is elo- 
quence, and eloquence there was in the land in liberal 
measure. There was William Lloyd Garrison, with his 
scathing earnestness of conviction ; there was Edward 



CHARLES SUMNER EDWARD EVERETT 

DANIEL WEBSTER 
WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON WENDELL PHILLIPS 



324 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1782-1852 



Everett, who used words as a painter uses his colors ; 
there was Wendell Phillips, whose magnetism almost 
won over those who were scorched by his invective ; 
there was Charles Sumner, brilliant, polished, logical, 
sometimes reaching the sublime ; there was Rufus 
Choate, with his richness of vocabulary, his* enchanting 
splendor of description, his thrilling appeals to the im- 
agination ; and there was Daniel Webster, greatest of 
them all in the impression that he gave of exhaustless 
power ever lying behind his sonorous phrases. Such 
was the oratory of New England. Eloquence, however, 
makes its appeal not only by words, but by voice, ges- 
ture, manner, — by personality. Its rewards are those 
of the moment. An hour after the delivery of the most 
brilliant oration, its glory is but a memory ; in a few 
years it is but a tradition. Literature recognizes no 
tools but printed words. It often lacks immediate recog- 
nition, but whatever there is in it of merit cannot fail to 
win appreciation sooner or later. Oratory is not neces- 
sarily literature ; but the orations of Webster lose little 
of their power when transferred to the printed page ; 
they not only hear well but read well. 

Webster was a New Hampshire boy whose later 
„ , , home was Massachusetts. He won early fame 

Daniel J 

Webster, as a lawyer and speaker, but his first great 
1782-1852. orator j ca i success was his oration delivered 
at Plymouth in 1820. He spoke at the laying of the 
corner-stone of the Bunker Hill monument, and again at 
its completion. As a man in public life, as a member 
of Congress, and as Secretary of State, many of his ora- 
tions were of a political nature, the greatest of these 
being his reply to Hayne. His law practice was con- 
tinued, and even some of his legal speeches have become 
classics. Perhaps the most noted among them Is the 



1820-1852] THE ANTI-SLAVERY WRITERS 325 

one on the murder of Captain Joseph White, with its 
thrilling account of the deed of the assassin, of the hor- 
ror of the possession of the "fatal secret," on to the 
famous climax, " It must be confessed ; it will be con- 
fessed ; there is no refuge from confession but in sui- 
cide, — and suicide is confession ! " 

Webster's words, spoken with his sonorous, melodious 
voice, and strengthened by the impression of power and 
immeasurable reserved force, might easily sway an audi- 
ence ; but what is it that has made them literature ? 
How is it that while most speeches pale and fade in the 
reading, and lose the life and glow bestowed by the per- 
sonality of the orator, Webster's are as mighty in the 
domain of literature as in that of oratory ? It is because 
his thought is so clear, his argument so irresistible and 
so logical in arrangement, his style so dignified and vig- 
orous and finished, and above all so perfectly adapted to 
the subject. When we read his words, we forget speaker, 
audience, and style, we forget to notice how he has 
spoken and think only on what he has spoken, — and 
such writings are literature. 

C. The Anti-Slavery Writers 

John Greenleaf Whittier. 
Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

ORATORS 

William Lloyd Garrison Charles Summer 

Edward Everett Rufus Choate 

Wendell Phillips Daniel Webster. 

SUMMARY 

The anti-slavery movement strongly affected literature. 
It was aroused by Garrison. Among the many names asso- 
ciated with its literature are those of Whittier and Mrs. 



326 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1815-1865 



Stowe. Whittier's first published poem was in Garrison's 
Free Press. By Garrison's influence he was sent to school 
and later entered upon editorial work. He wrote many ring- 
ing anti-slavery poems. In 1866 his Snow-Bound touched the 
heart of the country. Many of his ballads are of rare excel- 
lence. 

Mrs. Stowe founded Uncle Totrfs Cabin upon the stories of 
escaped slaves. Its enormous sale was due to its humor, 
pathos, and earnestness, and to the time of its publication. 
Her best literary success was in her New England stories. 

During this period New England was also rich in orators. 
Among them were Garrison, Everett, Phillips, Sumner, 
Choate, and Webster. Not all oratory is literature, but many 
of Webster's orations are also literature. He was equally 
eloquent in occasional addresses and in legal and political 
speeches. 



CHAPTER VI 



THE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1815— 

I. EARLIER YEARS, 1815-1865 
D. THE CAMBRIDGE POETS 

31. The Cambridge Poets. To this period belongs the 
greater part of the work of the three New England poets, 
Longfellow, Lowell, and Holmes. In the early lives of 




CAMBRIDGE IN 1824 



these three there was a somewhat remarkable similarity. 
They were all descendants of New England families of 
culture and standing. They grew up in homes of plenty, 
but not of undignified display. They were surrounded 
by people of education and intellectual ability. They 



328 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1807-1839 

came to feel, as Holmes puts it, as much at ease among 
books as a stable boy feels among horses. Each held a 
professorship at Harvard. Here the resemblance ends, 
for never were three poets more unlike in work and dis- 
position than the three who are known as the Cambridge 
Poets. 

32. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1807-1882. 

The birthplace of Longfellow was Portland, Maine, 
which he calls " the beautiful town that is seated by the 
sea." He had all the advantages of books, college, and 
home culture ; and he made such good use of them that 
while he was journeying homeward from Bowdoin Col- 
lege with his diploma in his trunk, the trustees were 
meditating upon offeriag the young man of nineteen the 
professorship of modern languages in his Alma Mater. 
He accepted gladly, spent three years in Europe pre- 
paring for the position, and returned to Bowdoin, where 
he remained for six years. Then came a call to become 
professor at Harvard ; and a welcome professor he was, 
for his fame had gone before him. The boys were 
proud to be in the classes of a teacher who, with the 
exception of George Ticknor, a much older man, was 
the best American scholar of the languages and litera- 
ture of modern Europe. He was a poet, too ; his Stim- 
mer Shower had been in their reading-books. Some of 
them had read his Outre Mer, a graceful and poetical 
mingling of bits of travel, stories, and translations. 
Moreover, he was a somewhat new kind of professor 
to the Harvard students of 1836, for he persisted in 
treating them as if they were gentlemen ; and, whatever 
they might be with others, they always were gentlemen 
with him. 

Up to 1839, the mass of Longfellow's work was in 
prose ; but in that year he published first Hyperion and 



1839-1840] THE CAMBRIDGE POETS 329 

then Voices of the Night. 'In the latter volume were 
translations from six or seven languages. There Hyperion, 
were also A Psalm of Life and The Reaper and 
the Flowers. These have had nearly seventy 1839. 
years of hard wear ; but read them as if no one had ever 
read them before, and think what courage and inspiration 
there is in — 

Let us, then, be up and doing, 

With a heart for any fate ; 
Still achieving, still pursuing, 

Learn to labor and to wait. 

The lovers of poetry were watching the young professor 
at Harvard. What would be his next work ? When 
his next volume came out, it contained, among The Skeie- 
other poems, The Skeleton in Armor. Thus ^j mor 
far, his writings had been thoughtful and beauti- 1*40. 
ful, but in this there was something more ; there was a 
stronger flight of the imagination, there was life, action, 
a story to tell, and generous promise for the future. 

So Longfellow's work went on. He lived in the charm- 
ing old Craigie House in Cambridge, where, as he wrote, 

Once, ah, once, within these walls, 
One whom memory oft recalls, 
The Father of his Country, dwelt. 

His longest narrative poems are Evangeline, The Court- 
ship of Miles Standish, and The Song of Hiawatha, 
which have been favorites from the first. He translated 
Dante's Divine Comedy and wrote several Transia- 
dramas. His translations are much more tlons - 
literal than those of most writers ; but they are never 
bald and prosy, for he gives to every phrase the master 
touch that makes it glow with poetry. Few, if any, 
poems are more American and more patriotic than his 
Building of the Ship, with its impassioned apostrophe : — 



33° AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1807-1882 

Thou, too, sail orf, O Ship of State ! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 

Nevertheless, Longfellow loved the Old World and the 
literatures of many peoples. In his translations he 
brought to his own country the culture of the lands 
across the sea. In so doing he not only enabled others 




CRAIGIE HOUSE 



to share in his enjoyment, but did much to prove to 
the youthful literature of the New World that there 
were still heights for it to ascend. 

Longfellow knew how to beautify his verse with ex- 
Literary quisite imagery, but this imagery was never 
style. used merely for ornament ; it invariably flashed 
a light upon the thought, as in — 

Feeling is deep and still ; and the word that floats on the surface 
Is as the tossing buoy, that betrays where the anchor is hidden. 



1807-1882] THE CAMBRIDGE POETS 



331 



He had the ability to produce beauty from the simplest 
materials. Once, for instance, he chose a time-worn 
subject, he made a time-worn comparison, he used in 
his fifteen lines of verse but fifty-six different Words, all 
everyday words and five sixths of them monosyllables ; 
and with such materials he composed his Rainy Day ! 
His writings .are so smooth and graceful that one some- 
times overlooks their strength. Evangeline, for instance, 
is "A Tale of Love in Acadie," but it is also a picture 
of indomitable purpose and unfaltering resolution. Miles 
Standish is more than a charming Puritan idyl, cen- 
tring in an archly demure, " Why don't you speak for 
yourself, John? " It is a maiden's fearless obedience to 
the voice of her heart, and a strong man's noble conquest 
of himself. The keynote of much of Longfellow's lyric 
verse is his sympathy. When sorrow came to him, his 
pity did not centre in himself, but went out into the 
world to all who suffered. In the midst of his own grief, 
he wrote : — 

There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 
But has one vacant chair. 

" Read me that poem," said a bereaved mother, "for 
Longfellow understood." That is why Longfellow is 
great. In his Hiazvatha he introduced a Finnish metre ; 
in Evangeline he first succeeded in using the classic 
hexameter in English. Thus he gave new tools to the 
wrights of English verse ; but it was a far greater glory 
to be able to speak directly to the hearts of the people. 
This gift, together with his pure and blameless life, 
won for him an affection so peculiarly reverent that, 
even while he lived, thousands of his readers spoke his 
name with the tenderness of accent oftenest given to 
those who are no longer among us. Happy is the man 
who wins both fame and love ! 



332 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1819-1891 



33. James Russell Lowell, 1819-1891. A big, 
roomy house, fields, woods, pastures, libraries, a college 
at hand, older brothers and sisters, a father and mother 
of education and refinement, — such were the surround- 
ings of Lowell's early life. The Vision of Sir Launfal 




ELMWOOD 



shows how well he learned the out-of-door world ; his 
essays prove on every page how familiar he became with 
the world of books. 

When the time for college had come, there were diffi- 
culties. The boy was ready to read every volume not 
required by the curriculum, and to keep every rule ex- 
cept those invented by the faculty. When graduation 
time drew near, his parents were in Rome. Some one 
hastened to tell them that their son had been rusticated 
to Concord for six weeks and had also been chosen class 
poet. " Oh, dear ! " exclaimed the despairing father, 



1848] 



THE CAMBRIDGE POETS 



333 



" James promised me that he would quit writing poetry 
and go to work." 

Fortunately for the lovers of good poetry, " James " 
did not keep his word. He struggled manfully to be- 
come a lawyer, but he could not help being a poet. Just 
ten years after graduating, he brought out in one short 
twelvemonth three significant poems. The first was 
The Vision of Sir Latinfal, with its loving outburst of 
sympathy with nature. He knew well how the clod — 

Groping blindly above it for light, 
Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers. 

Sir Launfal, too, climbs to a soul, for the poem is the 
story of a life. The second poem was A Fable for 
Critics. The fable proper is as dull as the The vision 01 
preposterous rhymes and unthinkable puns of 
Lowell will permit ; but its pithy criticisms Critics, 
of various authors have well endured the pap e ?sf l0W 
wear and tear of half a century. The third 
was The Biglozv Papers. Here was an entirely new 
vein. Here the Yankee dialect — which is so often only 
a survival of the English of Shakespeare's day — became 
a literary language. Lowell could have easily put his 
thoughts into the polished sentences of the scholar ; 
but the homely wording which he chose to employ gives 
them a certain everyday strength and vigor that a 
smoother phrasing would have weakened. When he 
writes, — 

Ez fer war, I call it murder; 

There you hev it plain an' flat; 
I don't want to go no furder 

Than my Testyment fer that, — 

he strikes a blow that has something of the keenness of 
the sword and the weight of the cudgel. 

These three poems indicate the three directions in 



334 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1809-1894 

which Lowell did his best work ; for he was poet, critic, 
and reformer, — sometimes all three in one. In such 
poems as The Present Crisis, that stern and solemn 
arraignment of his countrymen, there is as much of 
earnest protest as of poetry. So in The Dandelion, his 
" dear, common flower " reveals to him not only its 
own beauty, but the thought that every human heart is 
sacred. 

Lowell's lyrics are only a small part of his work ; for 
he took the place of Longfellow at Harvard, he edited 
scope of the Atlantic and the North American Review ; 
Ms work. Y\q wrote many magazine articles on literary 
and political subjects; he delivered addresses and 
poems, the noble Commemoration Ode ranking highest 
of all ; and he was minister, first to Spain, and then to 
England. In his prose writings one is almost over- 
whelmed with the wideness of his knowledge, yet there 
is never a touch of pedantry. He always writes as if 
his readers were as much at home in the world of books 
as himself. The serious thought is ever brightened by 
gleams of humor, flashes of wit. When we take up one 
of his writings, it will " perchance turn out a song, per- 
chance turn out a sermon." It may be full of strong and 
manly thought, and it may be all a-whirl with rollicking 
merriment ; but whatever else it is, it will be sincere and 
honest and interesting. It is easier to label and classify 
the man who writes in but one manner, and it may be 
that he wins a surer fame ; but we should be sorry in- 
deed to miss either scholar, critic, wit, or reformer from 
the work of the poet Lowell. 

34. Oliver Wendell Holmes, 1809-1894. On the 
page for August in a copy of the old Massachusetts 
Register for 1809, the twenty-ninth day is marked, and 
at the bottom of the page is a foot-note, " Son b." In 



1830-1836] THE CAMBRIDGE POETS 



335 



this laconic fashion was noted the advent of the physi- 
cian-novelist-poet. He had also a chance of becoming 
a clergyman and a lawyer ; for his father favored the 
one profession, and he himself gave a year's study to the 
other. It was while he was poring over Blackstone that 
the order was given to break up the old battleship Con- 
stitution. Then it was that he wrote Old Iron- _ 

Old Iron- 

sides. The poem was printed on handbills, sides, 
They were showered about the streets of 1830 ' 
Washington, and the Secretary of the Navy revoked his 
order. Holmes was twenty-one. The question of a 
profession was still unsettled. Finally he decided to be 
a physician ; but, as he said, " The man or woman who 
has tasted type is sure to return to his old indulgence 
sooner or later." In Holmes's case, it was sooner, for 
he had hardly taken his degree before the poems, 
publishers were advertising a volume of his 1836, 
poems. Here were My Aunt, The September Gale, and 
best of all, The Last Leaf, the verses that one reads 
with a smile on the lips and tears in the eyes. 

The young physician's practice did not occupy much 
of his time, chiefly because he wrote poetry and made 
witty remarks. These were a delight to the well folk, 
but the sick people were a little afraid of a doctor whose 
interest and knowledge were not limited to pills and 
powders. Moreover, the man who lay ill of a fever 
could not forget that the brilliant young M. D. had said 
jauntily of his slender practice, " Even the smallest 
fevers thankfully received." Soon an invitation came to 
teach anatomy at Dartmouth ; and, a few years later, to 
teach the same subject at Harvard. Holmes was suc- 
cessful in both places ; for with all his love of literature, 
he had a genuine devotion to his profession. He wrote 
much on medical subjects, and three times his essays 



336 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1857 

gained the famous Boylston prize, offered annually by 
Harvard College for the best dissertations on questions 
in medical science. 

In 1857, the publishers, Phillips, Sampson and Co., 
decided to establish a new magazine. " Will you be its 
editor ? " they asked Lowell ; and he finally replied, 




THE AUTOCRAT LEAVING HIS BOSTON HOME FOR A MORNING WALK 

" I only wish a hut of stone 
(A very plain brown stone will do)." 

" Yes, if Dr. Holmes can be the first contributor to be 
TheAtian- engaged." Dr. Holmes became not only the 
tic, 1857. nrs t contributor, but he named the magazine 
The Atlantic. Some twenty-five years earlier he had 



1857-1861] THE CAMBRIDGE POETS 



337 



written two papers called The Autocrat of the Breakfast 
Table. He now continued them, beginning, " I The Auto- 
was just going to say when I was interrupted." cratof the 
The scene is laid at the table of a boarding- Table, 
house. The Autocrat carries on a brilliant 1857- 
monologue, broken from time to time by a word from 
the lady who asks for original poetry for her album, from 
the theological student, the old gentleman, or the young 
man John ; or by an anxious look on the face of the 
landlady, to whom some paradoxical speech of the 
Autocrat's suggests insanity and the loss of a boarder. 
Howells calls The Autocrat a "dramatized essay ; " but, 
whatever it is called, it will bear many readings and 
seem brighter and fresher at each one. Among the 
paragraphs of The Autocrat and The Professor, which 
followed, a number of poems are interspersed. Among 
them are The One-Hoss Shay, with its irrefutable logic ; 
Contentment, with its modest — 

I only wish a hut of stone 

(A very plain brown stone will do), — 

and the exquisite lines of The Chambered Nautilus, with 
its superb appeal, — 

Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul ! 

Holmes was also a novelist ; for he produced Elsie 
Venner and two other works of fiction, all showing power 
of characterization, and all finding their chief Elgie 
interest in some study of the mysterious con- venner, 

1861 

nection between mind and body. " Medicated 
novels," a friend mischievously called them, somewhat 
to the wrath of their author. 

Nearly half of Holmes's poems were written for some 
special occasion, — some anniversary, or class occasional 
reunion, or reception of a famous guest. At verse - 



338 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1815-1865 



such times he was at his best ; for the demand for occa- 
sional verse, which freezes most wielders of the pen, was 
to him a breath of inspiration. 

Holmes's wit is ever fascinating, his pathos is ever 
sincere ; but the charm that will perhaps be even more 
Holmes's powerful to hold his readers is his delightful 
charm. personality, which is revealed in every sen- 
tence. A book of his never stands alone, for the be- 
loved Autocrat is ever peeping through it. His tender 
heart first feels the pathos that he reveals to us ; his 
kindly spirit is behind every flash of wit, every sword- 
thrust of satire. 

D. The Cambridge Poets 

Henry Wads worth Longfellow 
James Russell Lowell 
Oliver Wendell Holmes 



SUMMARY 

The Cambridge Poets were all descendants of cultivated 
New England families and grew up among intellectual sur- 
roundings. All held professorships at Harvard. 

Longfellow graduated at Bowdoin, and became professor 
of modern languages, first at Bowdoin and then at Harvard. 
Until 1839, w hen he published Voices of the Night, he wrote 
chiefly prose. The Skeleton in Armor established his reputa- 
tion as a poet. His longest narrative poems are Evangeli?ie, 
The Courtship of Miles Standish, and The Song of Hiawatha. 
His translations are both literal and poetic, and were of great 
value to the young American literature. He can beautify his 
work with figures, or he can make a poem with the simplest 
materials. His sympathy was the keynote of much of his 
lyric verse. He introduced a Finnish metre, and was the first 
to succeed in English hexameter. 

Lowell's serious work began in 1848, when he brought out 
The Vision of Sir Lawifal, A Fable for Critics, and The Big- 



1815-1865] THE CAMBRIDGE POETS 



339 



low Papers. He succeeded Longfellow at Harvard, edited 
The Atlantic, wrote many magazine articles and addresses, 
was foreign minister to Spain and England. His writings 
show broad scholarship, love of nature, and much humor. He 
was scholar, wit, critic, reformer, and poet. 

Holmes's Old Ironsides was his first prominent poem. He 
studied medicine, became professor of anatomy, first at Dart- 
mouth, then at Harvard. In 1857 he named The Atlantic, 
and wrote The Autocrat for it. He wrote three novels, and 
was especially successful as an occasional poet. 



CHAPTER VII 



THE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1815 — 

I. EARLIER YEARS, 1815-1865 
E. THE HISTORIANS 

35. Historical writing. In the midst of this com- 
position of poetry and novels and philosophy, the early 
New England tendency toward the historical had by no 
means disappeared. Here, two opposing influences were 
at work. On the one hand, the Spanish studies of 
Irving, the History of Spanish Literature of Ticknor, 
and the translations of Longfellow, had turned men's 
minds toward European countries. On the other hand, 
the War of 18 12 and the rapid development of the 
United States had stimulated patriotism. Moreover, 
with the passing of the heroes of the Revolution, Amer- 
icans began to realize that the childhood of the United 
States had vanished, that the youthful country had 
already a history to be recorded. The proper method of 
historical composition was pointed out to his country- 
men by Jared Sparks, first a professor and then president 
of Harvard College. 

Before the days of Sparks, few writers had felt the 
responsibility of historical writing. It was enough if a 
Jared history was made interesting and romantic ; 
sparks, there was little attempt to make it accurate. 
1789-1866. £ ven if original sources were at hand and 
the author took pains to examine them, he paid little 
attention to any study of causes or results, he made 



1800-1891] THE HISTORIANS 



341 



no careful comparison of conflicting accounts. One 
manuscript was as good as another, and any so-called 
fact was welcome if it filled a vacant niche in the story. 
Sparks followed a different method. To gather his in- 
formation, he consulted not only the records stored in 
the dignified archives of the great libraries of Europe 
and America, but also the family papers stuffed away 
into the corners of ancient garrets. He examined old 
newspaper's and pamphlets and diaries. He traced le- 
gends and traditions back to their origins. It was in this 
way that his Life and Writings' of George Washington, 
his partially completed History of the American Revolu- 
tion, and his other works were produced. Unfortunately, 
Sparks lacked the good fairy gift of the power to make 
his work interesting ; that was left for other writers ; 
but in thoroughness in collecting materials he was the 
pioneer. During this period, there were at least four 
historians whose fame is far greater than his ; but to 
Sparks they owe the gratitude that is ever due to him 
who has pointed out the way. These four are Bancroft 
and Parkman, who wrote on American themes ; and Pres- 
cott and Motley, who chose for their subjects different 
phases of European history. 

36. George Bancroft, 1800-1891. On a hill in the 
city of Worcester, Massachusetts, stands a tower of mas- 
sive stone. It was erected in honor of George Bancroft, 
who as a boy roamed over the hills and valleys of what 
is now a part of the city. He graduated at Harvard, 
and then went to Germany, where he studied with vari- 
ous scholars branches of learning which ranged from 
French literature to Scriptural interpretation. History of 
At twenty he had chosen his lifework, — to states?" 6 * 
become a historian. Fourteen years later the 1834-1882. 
first volume of his History of the United States came 



34 2 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1796-1837 

out, a scholarly record of the progress of our country 
from the discovery of America to the adoption of the 
Constitution in 1789. 

Bancroft's historical work extended over nearly fifty 
years ; but during that time he did much other writing, he 
was minister to England and to Berlin, and he was Secre- 
tary of the Navy. While holding this last office he de- 
cided that the United States ought to have a naval school. 
Congress did not agree, but Mr. Bancroft went quietly 
to work. He found that he had a right to choose a 
place where midshipmen should remain while waiting for 
orders, also that he could direct that the lessons given 
them at sea should be continued on land. He obtained 
Founding of ^ e use °^ some military buildings at Annapo- 
tne Naval lis, put the boys into them, and set them to 
Academy. wor k Then he said to Congress, " We have 
a naval school in operation ; will you not adopt it ? " 
Congress adopted it, and thus the United States Naval 
Academy was founded. 

37. William Hickling Prescott, 1796-1859. A crust 
of bread thrown in a students' frolic at Harvard made 
Prescott nearly blind, and prevented him from becoming 
a lawyer as he had planned. With what little eyesight 
remained to him, and with an inexhaustible fund of cour- 
age and cheerfulness, he set to work to become a histo- 
rian. He made a generous preparation. For ten years 
he read by the eyes of others scores of volumes on 
ancient and modern literature. He had chosen for the 
title of his first book The History of the Reign of Ferdi. 
The History na nd and Isabella. He must learn Spanish, of 
of Ferdi- course ; and he describes with a gentle humor 
? a ^ d u lld the weeks spent under the trees of his country 
1837. residence, listening to the reading of a man who 
understood not a word of the language. As the differ- 



1843-1877] THE HISTORIANS 



343 



ent authorities were read aloud, many of them conflict- 
ing, Prescott dictated notes. When he had completed 
his reading for one chapter, he had these notes read to 
him. Then he thought over all that he meant to say in 
the chapter, — thought so exactly, and so many times, 
that when he took up his noctograph, he could write as 
rapidly as the contrivance would permit. 

It was under such discouragements that Prescott 
wrote ; but he said bravely that these difficulties were 
no excuse for " not doing well what it was not neces- 
sary to. do at all." His work needs small ex- TheCon- 
cuse. He had chosen the Spanish field ; he Mexico* 
wrote The Conquest of Mexico, then The Con- 1843. 
quest of Peru. Three volumes he completed q Ues tof 
of The History of the Reign of Philip the Peru > 1847 - 

J J S J F The History 

Second ; then came death. of the Reign 

Prescott was most painstaking in collecting ^fsecond 
facts and comparing statements, but the popu- 1855-1858. 
larityof his books is due in part to their subject and in 
even greater part to their style. He wrote of the days 
of romance and wild adventure, it is true ; but yet the 
most thrilling subject will not make a thrilling writer out 
of a dull one. Prescott has written in a style that is 
strong, absolutely clear, and often poetic. He describes 
a battle or a procession or a banquet or even a wedding 
costume as if he loved to do it. Few writers have com- 
bined as successfully as he the accuracy of the historian 
and the marvellous picturing of the poet and novelist. 

38. John Lothrop Motley, 1814-1877. When Ban- 
croft was a young man, he taught for a year at Northamp- 
ton. One of his pupils was a handsome, bright-eyed 
boy named Motley. This boy's especial delight was read- 
ing poetry and novels, and a few years after he gradu- 
ated from Harvard he wrote a novel which was fairly 



344 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1814-1877 



good. He wrote another, which was better ; but by this 
time he had become so deeply interested in the Dutch 
Republic that he determined to write its history. Ten 
The Rise of years later he sent a manuscript to the English 
Republic! 1 publisher, Murray. It was promptly declined, 
1856. and the author published it at his own expense. 
Then Murray was a sorry man, for The Rise of the 
Dutch Republic was a decided success. 

The lavish amount of work that had been bestowed 

upon it ought to 
have brought suc- 
cess. Motlev could 
not obtain the 
needed documents 
in America, there- 
fore he and his 
family crossed the 
ocean. When he 
had exhausted the 
library in one place, 
they went to an- 
other. He had a 
hard-working sec- 
retary, and in two 
or three countries 
he had men en- 
gaged to copy rare 
papers for his use. 
When his material 
was .well in hand, 
he had the critical 

ability to select and arrange his facts, the literary instinct 
to present them in telling fashion, and the artistic talent to 
make vivid pictures of famous persons and dramatic scenes. 




JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY 
1814-1877 



1860-1874] THE HISTORIANS 



345 



One of the pleasantest facts about our greater authors 
is the almost invariable absence of envy among them. 
This book could hardly fail to trench upon the field of 
Prescott ; yet the blind historian was ready with the 
warmest commendations, as were Irving and Bancroft. 
Prescott, indeed, in the first volume of his Philip the 
Second, published a year earlier, had inserted a cordial 
note in regard to the forthcoming Dutch Republic. 

Motley's next book was The United Netherlands. 
One more work would have completed the his- The united 
tory of the whole struggle of the Dutch for |JJ|j£ r " 
liberty. He postponed preparing this until he 1860-1868. 
should have written The Life and Death of Jn^Death 
John of Barneveld. Then came the long ill- of John of 
ness which ended his life, and the story of the 1874. 
epoch was never completed. 

39. Francis Parkman, 1823-1893. Some years be- 
fore Longfellow wrote, " The thoughts of youth are long, 
long thoughts," Francis Parkman was proving the truth 
of the line ; for he, a young man of eighteen, had already 
planned his lifework. He would be an historian, and he 
would write on the subject that appealed to him most 
strongly, — the contest between France and England for 
the possession of a continent. The preparation for such 
a work required more than the reading of papers — 
though an enormous quantity of these demanded careful 
attention. The Indians must be known. Their way of 
living and thinking must be as familiar to the historian 
as his own. The only way to gain this know- The 0regon 
ledge was to share their life ; and this Parkman Trail, 

1847 

did for several months. His health failed, his 
eyesight was impaired, but he did not give up the work 
that he had planned. Before beginning it, however, he 
tried his hand by writing The Oregon Trail, an account 



346 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



[1823-1893 



of his western journeyings and his life among the red 
men. 

His health was so completely broken down that for 
some time he could not listen to his secretary's reading 
for more than half an hour a day ; but he had no thought 

of yielding. He visited 
the places that he in- 
tended to describe ; he 
wrote when he could ; 
when writing was impos- 
sible, he cultivated roses 
and lilies; but whatever 
he did, and even when he 
could do nothing, he was 
always cheerful and cour- 
ageous. 

So it was that Park- 
man's work was done ; 
but he writes so easily, so 
gracefully, and with such 
apparent pleasure that 
the mere style of his com- 
position would make it of 
value. He seldom stops to consider motives and determine 
Literary remote causes, but he gives us a clear narrative, 
style. with dramatic and picturesque descriptions of 
such verisimilitude that we should hardly be surprised to 
see a foot-note saying, " I was present. F. P." He lived 
to carry out his plan, comprising twelve volumes which 
cover the ground from Pioneers of France in the New 
World to The Conspiracy of Pontiac. Higginson's sum- 
mary of the characteristics of the four historians is as fol- 
lows : " George Bancroft, with a style in that day thought 
eloquent, but now felt to be overstrained and inflated ; 




FRANCIS PARKMAN 
1823-1893 



1 796-1 886] THE HISTORIANS 



347 



William H. Prescott, with attractive but colorless style 
and rather superficial interpretation. . . . John Lothrop 
Motley, laborious, but delightful ; and Francis Parkman, 
more original in his work and probably more permanent 
in his fame than any of these." 

40. Minor authors. These last four chapters have 
been devoted to the authors of highest rank during the 
early part of New England's second period of 
literary leadership ; but there are many others palfrey] 
whose names it is not easy to omit from even i 796 " 1881 - 

J Jeremy 

so brief a sketch. In history, there are not only Belknap, 

John Gorham Palfrey, whose History of New ^^ 98 ' 
England, and Jeremy Belknap, -whose History midretn, 
of New Hampshire are still standards ; but 1807 " 1865, 
there is Richard Hildreth, whose History of the United 
States, written from a political point of view opposed to 
Bancroft's, lacks only an interesting style to win the 
popularity which its research and scholarship deserve. 
In criticism, there is Edwin Percy Whipple, who re- 
viewed literary work with sympathetic good sense and 
expressed his opinions in so vigorous and interesting a 
style that his own writings became literature. He and 
Richard Henry Dana ought to have worked hand in 
hand : Whipple, to criticise completed writings ; Ed W i n 
Dana, to cultivate the public taste to demand Per °y 

Whipple, 

the best. Dana wrote poetry also, but it lacked 1819-1886. 
the warmth of feeling that makes a poem live. ^e^* 
The Little Beach-Bird is now his best-known Dana, 

1787-1879 

poem. Whipple calls it " delicious, but slightly 
morbid ; " and it certainly has neither the tenderness of 
Henry Vaughan's The Bird nor the joyous comradeship 
of Mrs. Thaxter's The Sandpiper. Among essayists, 
there are two whose names first became well known 
during this period, Donald Grant Mitchell and George 



34* 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1822-1892 



William Curtis. The story is told of Mitchell that to 
make sure of a winding, picturesque pathway from the 
road to his house, he had a heavy load of stone brought 
to the gate and bade the driver make his way up 
the hill by the easiest grades. It is " by the easiest 
grades " that his Dream Life and Reveries of a Bache- 
lor, his earliest books, roam on gently and smoothly. 
They are full of sentiment ; but it is a good, clean senti- 
Donaid ment that should be not without honor, even 
Mitchell * n a book. His latest work, English Lands, Let- 
1822- ters, and Kings, has not quite the winsome charm 
of his earlier writings, but it is vigorous and picturesque. 
Here is his description of William the Conqueror : " It 
was as if a new, sharp, eager man of business had on a 
sudden come to the handling of some old sleepily con- 
ducted counting-room : he cuts off the useless heads ; 
he squares the books : he stops waste ; pity or tender- 
ness have no hearing in his shop." He says of Eliza- 
beth : " She would have been great if she had been a 
shoemaker's daughter, . . . she would have bound more 
shoes, and bound them better, and looked sharper after 
the affairs of her household than any cobbler's wife of 
the land." 

George William Curtis spent some of his schooldays 
at Brook Farm among the transcendentalists. Graceful 
sketches of travel were in vogue, and he wrote Nile 
Notes of a Howadji ; dreamy sentiment was in fashion, 
and he wrote his ever-charming Prue and I. Then he 
George became an editor, a lecturer, a political speaker. 
(^rtis m Meanwhile he had entered upon a long and 
1824-1892. honored career in the Easy Chair department 
of Harper s Magazine. For nearly forty years the read- 
ers of Harper s cut open the Easy Chair pages expect- 
antly, for there they were sure to find some pleasant 



1824-1892] 



THE HISTORIANS 



349 



chat on topics of the day, — on The American Girl, or 
The Game of Newport, or Honor, or The New England 
Sabbath, or on some man who was in the public eye. 
Grave or satirical, they were always marked by a liquid, 
graceful style, a gentle, kindly humor, and sound thought. 
Then there were two books, a big one and a Noah 
little one, written by Noah Webster. They Webster, 

1758 1843 

were not literature, and they did not have any 
special "inspiring influence" toward the making of 
literature ; but they were exceedingly useful tools. The 
big book was Webster's Dictionary, and the little one 
was the thin, blue-covered Webster's Spelling-book. Long 
ago it went far beyond copyrights and publishers' re- 
ports ; but it is estimated that sufficient copies have 
been printed to put one into the hand of every child in 
the nation. 

Taking this literature of New England, or almost of 
Massachusetts, as a whole, we cannot fail to note its 
atmosphere of conscientious work. It is not enough 
for the poet that an inspiring thought has flashed into 
his mind ; he feels a responsibility to interpret it to the 
best of his power. In Longfellow's work, for instance, 
there is no poem that we would strike out as unworthy 
of his pen. Hawthorne's slightest sketch is as carefully 
finished as his Scarlet Letter. Nothing is done heed- 
lessly. The Puritan conscience had been enriched with 
two centuries of culture ; but it was as much of a power 
in the literature of New England as in the lonely little 
settlements that clung to her inhospitable coast. 



E. The Historians 



Jared Sparks 
George Bancroft 
William Hickling Prescott 



John Lothrop Motley 
Francis Parkman 



35o 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1815-1865 



SUMMARY 

The Spanish studies of Irving and Ticknor and the trans- 
lations of Longfellow drew men's minds toward the Old 
World; the War of 1812 and the rapid development of the 
United States stimulated patriotism. Sparks first pointed 
out the thorough and accurate method of historical writing. 
The four leading historians of the period were : (1) Bancroft, 
who wrote the History of the United States ; (2) Prescott, 
who wrote clearly and attractively on Spanish themes, and 
whose last book, the History of the Reign of Philip the Second, 
was left incomplete ; (3) Motley, who wrote " laboriously 
but picturesquely " of the Dutch Republic, but died without 
completing its history ; (4) Parkman, who chose for his sub- 
ject the contest between France and England for the posses- 
sion of North America, and lived to carry out his plan so 
excellently as to win permanent fame. 

Among the many minor authors of this period were the 
historians, Palfrey, Belknap, and Hildreth ; the critic, Whip- 
ple ; the critic and poet, Dana ; the essayists, Mitchell, and 
Curtis of the Easy Chair ; while Noah Webster of the Dic- 
tionary and Spelling-book must not be forgotten. 



CHAPTER VIII 



THE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1815- 



I. EARLIER YEARS, 1815-1865. 
F. THE SOUTHERN WRITERS 

41. Why there was little writing in the South. 

Thus it was that literature centred about the great cities 
of the North. There were several reasons why it could 
hardly be expected to 
flourish in the South. 
In the first place, there 
were no large towns' 
where publishing 
houses had been es- 
tablished and where 
men of talent might 
gain inspiration from 
one another. Again, 
there was small home 
market for the wares 
of the author. There 
were libraries in many 
of the stately homes of 
the South, but their 
shelves were filled with 
the English classics of 
the eighteenth century. 
There was no lack of 

intellectual power; but plantation life called for executive 
ability and led naturally to statesmanship and oratory 
rather than to the printed page. There were orators, such 




WILLIAM WIRT 
1772-1834 



352 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1772-1835 

men as Henry Clay, "the great leader;" the ardent, 
brilliant Patrick Henry of earlier times ; Robert Young 
Hayne, equally eloquent in address and in debate ; and 
John Caldwell Calhoun, whom Webster called "a senator 
of Rome." There was almost from the beginning a 
poem written "in one place and a history or a biography 
William m another. The most famous of these scat- 
wlrt » tered writings were produced by William Wirt, 

1772-1834 

a Maryland lawyer. Early in the century he 
wrote his Letters of a British Spy, which contains his 
touching description of The Blind Preacher. In 18 17 
his eminence as a lawyer was proved by his being chosen 
Attorney-General of the United States, and his ability 
as an author by the publication of his Life of Patrick 
Henry. This book is rather doubtful as to some of, its 
facts, and rather flowery as to its rhetoric, but so vivid 
that the picture which it draws of the great orator has 
held its own for nearly a century. Charleston was the 
nearest approach to a literary centre, for it was the home 
of Simms, Hayne, and Timrod. 

42. William Gilmore Simms, 1806-1870. In 
1827, when the Knickerbocker writers had already 
brought forth some of their most valuable productions, 
Simms published a little volume of poems. He pub- 
lished a second, a third, and many others ; but his best 
work was in prose. He wrote novel after novel, as 
hastily and carelessly as Cooper, but with a certain dash 
TheYemas- and vigor. The Yemassee is ranked as his 
see, 1835. -^est wor k it has no adequate plot, but con- 
tains many thrilling adventures and narrow escapes. 
Simms is often called the " Cooper of the South ; " and 
in one important detail he is Cooper's superior, namely, 
his women are real women. They are not introduced 
merely as pretty dummies whose rescue will exhibit the 



1830-1886] THE SOUTHERN WRITERS 



353 



prowess of the hero : they are thoughtful and intelligent, 
and, in time of need, they can take a hand in their own 
rescue. In The Yemas- 
see, for instance, " Gray- 
son's wife " has a terrible 
struggle with an Indian at 
her window. She faints, 
but — like a real woman 
— not until she has won 
the victory. In one re- 
spect Simms did work 
that is of increasing 
value ; he laid his scenes 
in the country about his 
own home, he studied the 
best historical records, he 
learned the traditions of 
the South. The result is 
that in his novels there is 
a wealth of information 
about Southern colonial life that can hardly be found 
elsewhere. 

43. Paul Hamilton Hayne, 1830-1886. Simms was 
of value to the world of literature in another way than 
by wielding his own pen. He was a kind and help- 
ful friend to the younger authors who gathered around 
him. The chief of these was Hayne, who is often called 
" the poet-laureate of the South." Hayne had a com- 
fortable fortune and a troop of friends, and there was 
only one reason why his life should not have flowed on 
easily and pleasantly. That reason was the Civil War. 
He enlisted in the Confederate Army, and, even after 
he was sent home too ill for service, his pen was ever 
busied with ringing lyrics of warfare. When peace came, 




WILLIAM GILMORE SIMMS 

i 806-1 8 70 



354 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1830-1886 



he found himself almost penniless. Many a man has 
taken up such a struggle with life bravely ; Hayne did 
more, for he took it up cheerfully. He built himself a 
tiny cottage and " persisted in being happy." Before the 
war, he had published three volumes of verse, and now 
from that little home came forth many graceful, beauti- 
ful lyrics. This is part of his description of the song of 
the mocking-bird at night : — 

It rose in dazzling spirals overhead, 

Whence to wild sweetness wed, 

Poured marvellous melodies, silvery trill on trill ; 

The very leaves grew still 

On the charmed trees to hearken ; while for me, 
Heart-trilled to ecstasy, 

I followed — followed the bright shape that flew, 

Still circling up the blue, 

Till as a fountain that has reached its height, 

Falls back in sprays of light 

Slowly dissolved, so that enrapturing lay 

Divinely melts away 

Through tremulous spaces to a music-mist, 
Soon by the fitful breeze 

How gently kissed 
Into remote and tender silences. 

He wrote narrative verse, but was especially successful 
in the sonnet, with its harassing restrictions and limita- 
tions. Hayne's writings have one charm that those of 
greater poets often lack ; his personality gleams through 
them. He trusts us with his sorrows and his joys. He 
writes of the father whom he never saw, of the dear son 
" Will," of whom he says : — 

We roam the hills together, 
In the golden summer weather, 
Will and I. 

He writes of his wife's " bonny brown hand," — 
The hand that holds an honest heart, and rules a happy hearth. 



1829-1867] THE SOUTHERN WRITERS 



355 



He writes of the majestic pine against which his poet 
friend laid his weary head. In whatever he writes, he 
shows himself not only a poet, but also a sincere and 
lovable man. 

44. Henry Timrod, 1829-1867. The friend who 
leaned against the pine was Henry Timrod. Their 
friendship began in the days when " Harry " passed 
under his desk a slate full of his own verses. Life was 
hard for the young poet. Lack of funds broke off his 
college course, and for many years he acted as tutor in 
various families. In i860 a little volume of his poems 
was brought out in Boston by Ticknor and Fields. It 
was spoken of kindly — and that was all. Then came 
the war, and such poverty that he wrote of his verse, " I 
would consign every line of it to eternal oblivion, for — 
one hundred dollars in hand ! " 

Timrod writes in many tones. He is sometimes 
strong, as in The Cotton Boll; sometimes light and 
graceful, as in Baby s Age, wherein the age is counted 
by flowers, a different flower for each week. This 
ends : — 

But soon — so grave, and deep, and wis*e 
The meaning grows in Baby's eyes, 
So very deep for Baby's age — 
We think to date a week with sage. 

Sometimes he rises to noble heights, as in his descrip- 
tion of the poet, at least one stanza of which is not 
unworthy of Tennyson : — 

And he must be as armed warrior strong, 

And he must be as gentle as a girl, 
And he must front, and sometimes suffer wrong, 

With brow unbent, and lip untaught to curl; 
For wrath, and scorn, and pride, however just, 
Fill the clear spirit's eyes with earthly dust. 



356 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1809-1849 

In whatever tone he writes, there is sincerity, true love 
of nature, and a frequent flash of poetic expression, that 
make us dream pleasant dreams of what a little money 
and a little leisure might have brought from his pen. 

45. Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1849. Another Southern 
writer, in some respects the greatest of all, was Edgar 
Allan Poe. He was left an orphan, and was taken into 
the family of a wealthy merchant of Baltimore named 
Allan. He was somewhat wild in college, and was 
brought home and put to work in Mr. Allan's office. 
He ran away, joined the army under an assumed name, 
was received at West Point through Mr. Allan's influ- 
ence, but later discharged for neglect of his duties. Mr. 
Allan refused any further assistance, and Poe set to work 
to support himself by his pen. In the midst of poverty 
he married a beautiful young cousin whom he loved 
devotedly. He wrote a few poems and much prose. 
He held various editorial positions ; he filled them most 
acceptably, but usually lost them through either his ex- 
treme sensitiveness or his use of stimulants. His child- 
wife died, and two years later Poe himself died. 

These are the facts in the life of Poe ; but his various 
biographers have put widely varying interpretations upon 
them. One pictures him, for instance, as a worthless 
„ drunkard ; another, probably more truly, as of a sensitive, 
poetic organization that was thrown into confusion by a 
single glass of liquor. 

As a literary man, Poe was first known by his prose, 
and especially by his reviews. He had a keen sense 
Poe's criti- of literary excellence, and recognized it at a 
cism. glance. He was utterly fearless — and fear- 
lessness was a new and badly needed quality in American 
criticism. On the other hand, he had not the foundation 
of wide reading and study necessary for criticism that is 



1809-1849] THE SOUTHERN WRITERS 357 

to abide ; and, worse than that, he was not great enough 
to be fair to the man whom he disliked or of whom he 
was jealous. His most valuable prose is his p e's 
tales, for here he is a master. They are well Tales - 
constructed and the plot is well developed ; every sen- 
tence, every word, counts toward the climax. That is 
the more mechanical part of .the work; but Poe's power 
goes much further. He has a marvellous ability to make 
a story "real." He brings this about sometimes in De- 
foe's fashion, by throwing himself into the place of the 
character in hand and thinking what he would do in 
such a position ; sometimes by noting and emphasizing 
some significant detail, as, for instance, in The Cask of 
Amontillado. Here he mentions three times the web- 
work of nitre on the walls that proves their fearful depth 
below the river bed, and the victim's consequent hope- 
lessness of rescue. Sometimes the opening sentence 
puts us into the mood of the story, so that, before it is 
fairly begun, an atmosphere has been provided that lends 
its own coloring to every detail. For instance, the first 
sentence of The Fall of the House of Usher is : — 

" During the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day 
in the autumn of the year, when the clouds hung oppres- 
sively low in the heavens, I had been passing alone, on 
horseback, through a singularly dreary tract of country, 
and at length found myself, as the shades of evening 
drew on, within view of the melancholy House of Usher." 

Here is the keynote of the story, and we are pre- 
pared for sadness and gloom. The unusual expressions, 
"soundless day" and " singularly dreary," hint at some 
mystery. The second sentence increases these feelings ; 
and with each additional phrase the gloom and sadness 
become more dense. 

No one knows better than Poe how to work up to a 



35§ AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1809-1849 

climax of horror, and then to intensify its awfulness 
by dropping in some contrasting detail. In The Cask of 
Amontillado, for instance, the false friend, in his carnival 
dress of motley with cap and bells, is chained and then 
walled up in the masonry that is to become his living 
tomb. A single aperture remains. Through this the 
avenger thrusts his torch and lets it fall. Poe says, 
" There came forth in return only a jingling of bells." 
The awful death that lies before the false friend grows 
doubly horrible at this suggestion of the merriment of 
the carnival. 

Poe's poetry is on the fascinating borderland where 
poetry and music meet. His poems are not fifty in num- 
Poe's ber, and many of them are but a few lines in 
Poetry. length. The two that are best known are The 
Bells, a wonderfully beautiful expression of feeling 
through the mere sound of words, and The Raven. Poe 
has left a cold-blooded account of the " manufacture " 
of this latter poem. He declares that he chose beauty 
for the atmosphere, and that beauty excites the sensitive 
to tears ; therefore he decided to write of melancholy. 
The most beautiful thing is a beautiful woman, the most 
melancholy is death ; therefore he writes of the death 
of a beautiful woman. So with the refrain. O is the 
most sonorous vowel, and when joined with r is capa- 
ble of "protracted emphasis;" therefore he fixes upon 
"Nevermore." He may be believed or disbelieved; 
but in The Raven, as in whatever else he writes, there 
is a weird and marvellous music. To him, everything 
poetical could be interpreted by sound ; he said he 
" could distinctly hear the sound of the darkness as it 
stole over the horizon." He has a way of repeating a 
phrase with some slight change, as if he could not bear 
to leave it. Thus in Annabel Lee he writes : — 



1 842-188 1] THE SOUTHERN WRITERS 



359 



But our love it was stronger by far than the love 

Of those who were older than we — 

Of many far wiser than we — 
And neither the angels in heaven above, 

Nor the demons down under the sea, 
Can ever dissever my soul from the soul 

Of the beautiful Annabel Lee. 

This repetition is even more marked in U latum e : — 

The leaves they were crisped and sere — 
The leaves they were withering and sere. 

These phrases cling to the memory of the reader as if 
they were strains of music. We find ourselves saying 
them over and over. It is not easy to analyze the fas- 
cination of such verse, but it has fascination. Many 
years ago, when Poe was a young man, Higginson heard 
him read his mystic Al Aaraaf. He says, " In walking 
back to Cambridge my comrades and I felt that we had 
been under the spell of some wizard." When we look 
in the poems of Poe for the "high seriousness" that 
Matthew Arnold names as one of the marks of the best 
poetry, it cannot be found ; but in the power to express 
a mood, a feeling, by the mere sound of words, Poe has 
no rival. 

46. Sidney Lanier, 1842-1881. A few years after 
the death of Poe, a Southern college boy was earnestly 
demanding of himself, "What am I fit for?" He had 
musical genius, not merely the facility that can tinkle out 
tunes on various instruments, but deep, strong love of 
music and rare ability to produce music. His father, a 
lawyer of Macon, Georgia, felt that to be a musician 
was rather small business ; and his son had yielded to 
this belief so far as the genius within him would per- 
mit. Another talent had this rarely gifted boy, — for 
poetry. 



360 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1842-1881 



The Civil War was a harsh master for such a spirit, 
but in its nrs't days he enlisted in the Confederate army, 
and saw some terrible fighting. More than three years 
later he was taken prisoner — he and his flute. After 
five months they were released. For sixteen years he 
taught, he read, he wrote, he lectured at Johns Hopkins 
University and elsewhere, and for several winters he played 
first flute in the Peabody Symphony Orchestra in Balti- 
more. All those years he was in a constant struggle with 
consumption and poverty. Sometimes for many months 
he could do nothing but suffer. Between the attacks of 
illness he did a large amount of literary work. It was 
not always the kind of writing that he was longing to do, 
— some of it would in other hands have been nothing but 
Lanier's hack work ; but with a spirit like Lanier's there 
Prose. could be no such thing as hack work, for he 
threw such talent into it, such pleasure in using the pen, 
that at his touch it became literature. He edited Froissart 
and other chronicles of long ago, and he wrote a novel. 
He wrote also on the development of the novel, on the 
science of English verse, on the relations of poetry and 
music, and on Shakespeare and his forerunners. He 
was always a student, and always original. 

Lanier had the lofty conscientiousness of a great poet. 
Some truth underlies each of his poems, whether it is 
the simple — and profound — Ballad of the Trees and 
the Master, — 

» Into the woods my Master went, 

Clean forspent, forspent. 
Into the woods my Master came, 
Forspent with love and shame. 
But the olives they were not blind to Him; 
The little gray leaves were kind to Him : 
The thorn tree fead a mind to Him 
When into the woods He came. 



1842-1881] THE SOUTHERN WRITERS 



361 



Out of the woods my Master went, 

And He was well content. 

Out of the woods my Master came, 

Content with death and shame. 

When Death and Shame would woo Him last, 

From under the trees they drew Him last : 

' T was on a tree they slew Him — last 

When out of the woods He came, — 

the nobly rhythmical Marshes of Glynn, or The Song of 
the Chattahoochee, — 

All down the hills of Habersham, 

All through the valleys of Hall, 
The rushes cried Abide, abide, 
The willful water weeds held me thrall, 
The laving laurel turned my tide, 
The ferns and the fondling grass said Stay, 
The dewberry dipped for to work delay, 
And the little weeds sighed Abide, abide, 

Here in the hills of Habersham, 
* Here in the valleys of Hall. 

Poe had a melody of unearthly sweetness, but little 
basis of thought ; Lanier had a richer, if less bewitching 
melody, and thought. He had the balance, the self- 
Lanier's control, in which Poe was lacking. It is almost 
Poetry. a sure test f an y ki nc [ f greatness if its 

achievements carry with them an overtone that murmurs, 
" The man is greater than his deed. He could do more 
than he has ever done." We do not feel this in Poe ; 
we do feel it in Lanier. In his rare combination of 
Southern richness with Northern restraint, he will ever 
be an inspiration to the poetry that must arise from the 
luxuriant land of the South. He is not only the greatest 
Southern poet ; he is one of the greatest poets that our 
country has produced. " How I long to sing a thou- 
sand various songs that oppress me unsung ! " he wrote; 



362 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



[1815-1865 



and no lover of poetry can turn the last leaf of his single 
volume of verse without an earnest wish that a longer 
life had permitted his desire to be gratified. 



There was little writing in the South, because of the lack 
of large cities, the small home market for modern books, 
and the tendencies of plantation life toward statesmanship 
and oratory rather than literary composition. The best of 
this scattered writing was done by Wirt. Later, Simms, the 
" Cooper of the South," published many volumes of poems 
and many novels. The Yemassee is regarded as his best 
novel. He is Cooper's superior in the delineation of women. 
His novels give much information about colonial life in the 
South. Hayne, the " poet-laureate of the South," lost his 
property by the war. He wrote many beautiful poems, and 
was especially successful in the sonnet. His personality 
gleams through his writings. Henry Timrod had a hard 
struggle with poverty. He writes in many tones with sincerity, 
love of nature, and frequent flashes of poetic expression. 
The facts in Poe's life have been variously interpreted. He 
first became known through his reviews. His tales are his 
most valuable prose. They*are well constructed and remark- 
ably realistic. His poetry is on the borderland of poetry 
and music. He wrote fewer than fifty poems. He has left 
a doubtfully true account of his manufacture of The Raven. 
There is a fascinating music in whatever he writes. He has 
not the " high seriousness " of the great poet, but in the 
power to express feeling by the mere sound of the words 
he has no rival. Lanier had musical and poetical genius. 



F. The Southern Writers 



William Wirt 

William Gilmore Simms 

Paul Hamilton Hayne 



Henry Timrod 
Edgar Allan Poe 
Sidney Lanier 



SUMMARY 



815-1865] THE SOUTHERN WRITERS 



363 



He enlisted in the Confederate army. At the close of the 
war, he taught, lectured, read, wrote, played first flute in 
the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra. He struggled with ill 
health and narrow means. He did much editing, wrote on 
the development of the novel, on the science of English verse, 
on the relations of poetry and music, and on Shakespeare and 
his forerunners. His poems are rarely without a rich melody, 
and never without underlying truth. It proves his genius 
that he ever seemed greater than his writings. He is one of 
our greatest poets. 



CHAPTER IX 



THE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1815— 

II. LATER YEARS, 1865— 

47. Present literary activity. Since the war an 
enormous amount of printed matter has been produced. 
We can hardly be said to have a literary centre, for no 
sooner has one place begun to manifest its right to the 
title than, behold, some remarkably good work appears 
in quite another quarter. The whole country seems 
to have taken its pen in hand. Statesman, financier, 
farmer, general, lawyer, minister, actor, city girl, country 
girl, college boy, — everybody is writing. The result 
of this literary activity is entirely too near us for a 
final decision as to its merits, and any criticism pro- 
nounced upon it ought to have the foot-note, "At least, 
so it seems at present." 

48. Fiction. The lion's share of this printed matter, 
in bulk, at any rate, falls under the heading of fiction. 
Its distinguishing trait is realism, and the apostles of real- 
ism are William Dean Howells (1837- ) an d Henry 
James (1843- ). What they write is not thrilling, but 
the way they write it has charmed thousands of read- 
American ers. Wit, humor, and grace of style are the 
realism. qualities of their productions that are seldom 
lacking. They write of commonplace people ; but there 
is a certain restful charm in reading of the behavior of 
ordinary mortals under ordinary circumstances. How- 
ells lays the scenes of most of his novels on this side 
of the ocean ; James generally lays his scenes abroad. 



1822-1902] LATER YEARS 365 

Francis Marion Crawford (1854- ) sometimes brings 
his characters into America, but the scenes of his 
best novels are laid elsewhere. Edward Everett Hale 
(1822- ) is such a master of realism that his Man 
without a Country persuaded thousands that it was the 
• chronicle of an actual and unjustifiable proceeding. 
And there is Frank Richard Stockton (1 834-1902), 
whose realism-with-a-screw-loose has given us most 
inimitable absurdities. Our country is so large and 
manners of life vary so widely in its different regions 
that an American novel may have all the advantages of 
realism and yet be as truly romantic to three fourths of 
its readers as the wildest dreams of the romanticists. 
George Washington Cable (1844- ) has painted in 
The Grandissimes and other works a fascinating picture 
of Creole life in New Orleans. Richard Malcolm John- 
ston (1822-1898) tells us of the "Crackers " of Georgia ; 
John Esten Cooke (1 830-1 866), most of whose work 
belongs to a somewhat earlier period, has written of the 
days when chivalry was in flower in the Old Dominion ; 
Thomas Nelson Page (1853- ) brings before us the 
negro slave of Virginia, with his picturesque dialect, his 
devotion to " the fambly," and his notions of things 
visible and invisible ; Joel Chandler Harris Local color 

(1848- ) has the honor of contributing: a inAmeri- 
7 can fiction. 

new character, Uncle Remus, to the world of 

literature; Mary Noailles Murfree (1850- ), whose 
very publishers long believed her to be " Mr. Charles 
Egbert Craddock," has almost the literary monopoly of 
the mountainous regions of Tennessee. In this the 
regions are fortunate, for no gleam of beauty, no trait 
of character, escapes her keen eye. James Lane Allen 
(1850- ) has taken as his field his own state of 
Kentucky. He is as realistic as Henry James, but his 



366 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1827-1902 

realism is softened and beautified by a delicate and 
poetic grace. Edward Eggleston's (1837-1902) Hoosier 
Schoolmaster revealed the literary possibilities of south- 
ern Indiana in pioneer days. Several writers have pic- 
tured life in New England. Among them is John 
Townsend Trowbridge (1827- ) with his Neighbor 
yackwood and other stories. Mary E. Wilkins Freeman 
(1862- ) writes interesting stories, but almost invari- 
ably of the exceptional characters. Sarah Orne Jewett, 
(1849- )> w i tn rare g race an d humor and finer deli- 
cacy of touch, has gone far beyond surface peculiarities, 
women an ^ nas f° un d in the most everyday people 
story- some gleam of poetry, some shadow of pathos. 

Alice Brown (1857- ) writes frequently and 
charmingly of the unusual ; but with her the unusual is 
the natural manifestation of some typical quality. Eliza- 
beth Stuart Phelps Ward (1844- ) in 1866 ventured 
to treat our notions of heaven in somewhat realistic 
fashion in Gates Ajar. She has proved in many vol- 
umes her knowledge of the New England woman. Some 
•of her best later work has been in the line of the short 
story, as, for instance, her Jonathan and David. Rose 
Terry Cooke (1 827-1 892) has found the humor which is 
thinly veiled by the New England austerity. The stories 
of Kate Douglas Wiggin Riggs (1857- ) are marked 
by a keen sense of humor and sparkle with vivid bits 
of description. The early days of California have been 
pictured by Helen Hunt Jackson (1 831-1885) in Ra- 
mona, a novel which voiced the author's righteous in- 
dignation at the harshness and injustice shown to the 
Indians by the United States government. Her earlier 
work was poetry ; and in this, too, she has taken no 
humble place. Mary Hallock Foote (1847- ) nas 
sympathetically interpreted with both brush and pen 





LOUISA M. ALCOTT 
SARAH ORNE JEWETT 
ALICE BROWN 



HELEN HUNT JACKSON MARY NOAILLES MURFREE 

HARRIET BEECHER STOWE ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS WARD 
KATE DOUGLAS WIGGIN RIGGS AGNES REPPLIER 



368 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1849- 



the life of the mining camp of what used to be the " far 
West." Frances Hodgson Burnett (1849- ) won ner 
first popularity by That Lass d Lowries, which pictures 
life in the Lancashire districts of England. During 
the last few years the popular favor has swung between 
the historical novel and the one-character tale ; but the 
fiction, whether of the one class or the other, that has 
had the largest sale has laid its scenes in America and 
has been written by American authors. 

American fiction has become especially strong in the 
short story ; not merely the story which is short, but 
The short the story which differs from the tale in some- 
story - what the same way as the farce differs from the 
play, namely, that its interest centres in the situation 
rather than in a series of incidents which usually develop 
a plot. Cranford, for instance, is a tale. It pictures 
the life of a whole village, and is full of incidents, 
Stockton's The Lady or the Tiger is a short story ; 
it gives no incidents, and no more detail than is neces- 
sary to explain the peculiar situation of the princess. 
It is a single series of links picked out of a broad net- 
work. A tale is a field ; a short story is a narrow path 
running through the field. The short story, with its 
single aim, its determination to make every word count 
toward that aim, its rigid economy of materials, its sure 
and rapid progress, has proved most acceptable to our 
time-saving and swiftly-moving nation. 

49. Poetry. The writers of the last fifty years have 
had an immense advantage in the existence, of the four 
monthlies, The Atlantic, Harper s, Scribners, and The 
Century, for these magazines have provided what was so 
needed in earlier days, — a generous opportunity to find 
one's audience. They have been of special value to the 
poets, and the last half -century has given us much 



I 825-1 854] 



LATER YEARS 



369 



poetry. Not all of it is of the kind that makes its author's 
name immortal ; but it would not be difficult to count at 
least a score of Americans who in these latter days have 
written poems that are of real merit. So far as a poetic 
centre now exists, New York, with its many publishing 
houses and its favorable geographical position, holds the 
honor. 

50. Bayard Taylor, 1825-1878. Eight years after 
Bryant published Tlianatopsis, two of these later poets, 
Taylor and Stoddard, were born. Bayard Taylor began 
life as a country boy who wanted to travel. He wan- 
dered over Europe, paying his way sometimes by a letter 
to some New York paper, sometimes by a morning in 
the hayfield. His account of these wanderings, vie ^ g 
Views Afoot, was so boyish, so honest, enthu- Afoot, 
siastic, and appreciative, that it was a delight 1846, 
to look at the world through his eyes ; and the young 
man of twenty-one found that he had secured his 
audience. He continued to wander . and to write about 
his wanderings. He wrote novels also ; but, save for the 
money that this work brought him, he put little value 

upon it. Poetic fame was his ambition, and he „ 
v ' Poems of 

won it in generous measure. His Poems of the the orient, 
Orient is wonderfully fervid and intense. Some 1854, 
of these poems contain lines that are as haunting as 
Poe's. Such is the refrain to his Bedouin Song : — 

From the desert I come to thee 

On a stallion shod with fire ; 
And the winds are left behind 

In the speed of my desire. 
Under thy window I stand, 

And the midnight hears my cry : 
I love thee, I love but thee, 

With a love that shall not die 
Till the sun grows cold, 



37o 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1825-1903 



And the stars are old, 

And the leaves of the Judgment 

Book unfold ! 

Another favorite is his Song of the Camp, with its 
famous lines. — 

Each heart recalled a different name, 
But all sang " Annie Laurie." 

He wrote Home Pastorals (1875), ballads of home life in 
Pennsylvania ; several dramatic poems ; and a most valu- 
able translation of Faust '(1.870-1871). Bayard Taylor 
seems likely to attain his dearest wish, — to be remem- 
bered by his poetry rather than his prose. 

51. Richard Henry Stoddard, 1825-1903. One of 
Taylor's oldest and best beloved friends was Richard 
Henry Stoddard, a young ironworker. He had hard 
labor and long hours ; but he managed to do a vast 
amount of reading and thinking, and he had much to 
contribute to this friendship. He held no college de- 
gree, but he knew the best English poetry and was an 
excellent critic. He, too, was a poet. In a few years he 
published a volume of poems ; but poetry brought little 
gold, and by Hawthorne's aid he secured a position in 
the Custom House. He did much reviewing and edit- 
ing ; but poetry was nearest to his heart. There is a 
certain simplicity and finish about his poems that is 
most winning. The following is a special favorite : — 

The sky is a drinking cup, 

That was overturned of old ; 
And it pours in the eyes of men 

Its wine of airy gold. 

We drink that wine all day, 

Till the last drop is drained up, 

And are lighted off to bed 
By the jewels in the cup ! 



1 833- ] LATER YEARS 3/1 



52. Edmund Clarence Stedman, 1833 . Another 

poet and critic is Edmund Clarence Stedman. He reversed 
the usual order, and, instead of going from business to 
poetry, he went from poetry to business, and became a 
broker. When he had won success in Wall Street, he 
returned to poetry with an easy mind. He has a wide 
knowledge of literature, and is a keen and appreciative 
critic. Moreover, he can criticise his own work as well 
as that of other people. He has written many New 
England idylls, many war lyrics, and many occasional 
poems. Everything is well proportioned and exquisitely 
finished, but sometimes we miss warmth and fire. It is 
like being struck by a cool wind to come from Taylor's 
Bedotiin Song to Stedman's Song from a Drama : — 

Thou art mine, thou hast given thy word ; 

Close, close in my arms thou art clinging ; 

Alone for my ear thou art singing 
A song which no stranger has heard : 
But afar from me yet, like a bird, 
Thy soul, in s<pme region unstirred, 

On its mystical circuit is winging. 

One of his poems that no one who has read it can for- 
get is The Discoverer ; graceful, tender, with somewhat 
of Matthew Arnold's Greek restraint, and so carefully 
polished that it seems simple and natural. This be- 
gins : — 

I have a little kinsman 
Whose earthly summers are but three, 

And yet a voyager is he 

Greater than Drake or Frobisher, 

Than all their peers together ! 

He is a brave discoverer, 

And, far beyond the tether 

Of them who seek the frozen Pole, 
Has sailed where the noiseless surges roll. 

Ay, he has travelled whither 



372 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1836-1873 



A winged pilot steered his bark 
Through the portals of the dark, 
Past hoary Mimir's well and tree, 
Across the unknown sea. 

53. Thomas Bailey Aldrich, 1836 . Thomas 

Bailey Aldrich is counted with the New York group 
of poets by virtue of his fifteen years' residence in the 
metropolis. His tender little poem on the death of a 
child, Baby Bell, beginning, — 

Have you not heard the poets tell 
How came the dainty Baby Bell 
Into this world of ours ? 

touched the sympathetic American heart and won him 
the name of poet. If he had been a sculptor, he would 
have engraved cameos, so exquisitely finished is every- 
thing that he touches. The thought that some writers 
would expand into a volume of philosophy or a romance 
of mysticism, he is satisfied to condense into a lyric, as 
in his Identity : — 

Somewhere — in desolate wind-swept space — 
In Twilight-land — in No-man's-land — 

Two hurrying Shapes met face to face, 
And bade each other stand. 

" And who are you ? " cried one a-gape, 

Shuddering in the gloaming light. 
" I know not," said the second Shape, 

" I only died last night ! " 

In 1870 Aldrich returned to Boston. He then edited 
Every Saturday, and later The Atlantic Monthly. He 
published several volumes of poems and some charm- 
Marjorie m S stories. The most original of the latter 
Daw, 1873. is the delicious Marjorie Dazv, which won 
such popularity as to verify the favorite dictum of Bar- 
num, "People like to be humbugged." This story is 



I839-I9 02 ] 



LATER YEARS 



373 



marked by the same artistic workmanship and nicety of 
finish that beautifies whatever Aldrich touches. One 
cannot imagine him allowing a line to go into print that 
is in any degree less perfect than he can make it. 

54. Francis Bret Harte, 1839-1902. In 1868 a 
new voice came from the Pacific coast. The Overland 
Monthly had been, founded, and Francis Bret Harte had 
become its editor. He had gone from Albany 0ondensed 
to California, had tried teaching and mining, Novels, 

1867 

had written a few poems, and also Condensed . 
Novels, an irreverent and wisely critical parody on the 
works of various authors whom he had been taught to 
admire. In his second month of office he pub- The Luck 
lished The Luck of Roaring Camp. This was c f ^° p " ing 
followed by other stories and poems, and in a 1868. 
twinkling he was a famous man. The flush of novelty 
has passed, and he is no longer hailed as the Ameri- 
can laureate ; but no one can help seeing that within 
his own limits he is a master. When he takes his 
pen, the life of the mining camp stands before us in 
bold outline. He is a very missionary of light to those 
who think there is no goodness beyond their own little 
circle. In How Santa Clans Came to Simpson s Bar, 
for instance, the dirty little boy with " fevier. And 
childblains. And roomatiz," gets out of bed to show to 
the rough men who are his visitors a hospitality which 
is genuine if somewhat soiled ; and the roughest of them 
all gallops away on a dare-devil ride over ragged moun- 
tains and through swollen rivers to find a city and a toy- 
shop, because he has overheard the sick child asking his 
father what " Chrismiss " is, and the question has touched 
some childhood memories of his own. Harte's one text 
in both prose and poetry is that in every child there is 
some bit of simple faith, and that in the wildest, rough- 



374 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1819-1892 



est, most desperate of men there is some good. Several 
of his poems are exceedingly beautiful lyrics ; those that 
are called " characteristic," because written in the line 
wherein he made his first fame, are vivid pictures of the 
mining camp, — coarse, but hardly vulgar, and with a 
never-failing touch of human sympathy and warm con- 
fidence in human nature. 

55. Walt Whitman, 1819-1892. A few years ago, 
an old man with long white hair and beard, gray vest, 
gray coat, and a broad white collar well opened in front, 
walked slowly and with some difficulty to an armchair 
that stood on a lecture platform in Camden, New Jersey. 
He spoke of Lincoln, and at the end of the address 
he said half shyly : " My hour is nearly gone, but I fre- 
quently close such remarks by reading a little piece I 
have written — a little piece, it takes only two or three 
minutes — it is a little poem, ' O Captain ! My Cap- 
tain ! ' " This is what he read : — 

O Captain ! my Captain ! our fearful trip is done, 
The ship has weathered every rack, the prize we sought is won, 
The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, 
While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring ; 
But O heart ! heart ! heart ! 

But O the bleeding drops of red, 
Where on the deck my Captain lies, 
Fallen cold and dead. 

O Captain ! my Captain ! rise up and hear the bells ; 

Rise up — for you the flag is flung — for you the bugle trills, 

For you bouquets and ribboned wreaths — for you the shores 

acrowding, 

For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning ; 
Here Captain ! dear father ! 
This arm beneath your head ! 

It is some dream that on the deck 
You 've fallen cold and dead. 



i855- J LATER YEARS 375 

My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still, 
My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will, 
The ship is anchored safe and sound, its voyage closed and done, 
From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won ; 
Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells ! 
But I, with mournful tread, 

Walk the deck my Captain lies, 
Fallen cold and dead. 

This speaker was Walt Whitman. In 1855 he brought 
out his first volume of poems, Leaves of Grass. Seven 
years later he became the good angel of the LeaV e SO f 
army hospitals, writing a letter for one suf- Grass, 
ferer, cheering another by a hearty greeting, 1855 ' 
leaving an orange or a piece of bright new scrip or a 
package of candy at bed after bed. Northerner or 
Southerner, it was the same to him as he went around, 
carrying out the little wishes that are so great in a sick 
man's eyes. A few years later he suffered from a par- 
tial paralysis. His last days were spent in a simple 
home near the Delaware, in Camden. 

The place of Walt Whitman as a poet is in dispute. 
Some look upon him as a " literary freak ; " others as 
the mightiest poetical genius of America. He is cap- 
able of writing such a gem as O Captain ! my Captain ! 
and also of foisting upon us such stuff as the following 
and calling it poetry : — 

The latest dates, discoveries, inventions, societies, authors old and 
new, 

My dinner, dress, associates, looks, compliments, dues. 

Whitman believed that a poet might write on all sub- 
jects, and that poetic form and rhythm should be 
avoided. Unfortunately for his theories, when he has 
most of real poetic passion, he is most inclined to use 
poetic rhythm. He writes some lists of details that are 
no more poetic than the catalogue of an auctioneer; 



376 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1835-1905 

but he is capable of painting a vivid picture with the 
same despised tools, as in his Cavalry Crossing a Ford : — 

A line in long array where they wind betwixt green islands, 

They take a serpentine course, their arms flash in the sun, — hark 

to the musical clank, 
Behold the silvery river, in it the splashing horses loitering stop to 

drink, 

Behold the brown-faced men, each group, each person, a picture, 

the negligent rest on the saddles, 
Some emerge on the opposite bank, others are just entering the 

ford — while 
Scarlet and blue and snowy white, 
The guidon flags flutter gayly in the wind. 

This is hardly more than an enumeration of details ; but 
he has chosen and arranged them so well that he brings 
the moving picture before us better than even paint and 
canvas could do. When he persists in telling us unin- 
teresting facts that we do not care to be told, he is a writer 
of prose printed somewhat like poetry ; but when he 
allows a poetic thought to sweep him onward to a glory 
of poetic expression, he is a poet, and a poet of lofty rank. 

56. Minor poets. It is especially difficult to select a 
few names from the long list of our minor poets, for the 
work of almost every one of them is marked by some 
appealing excellence of subject or of treatment. Celia 
Thaxter (1835-1894) is ever associated with the Isles of 
Shoals, and, as Stedman says, " Her sprayey stanzas give 
us the dip of the sea-bird's wing, the foam and tangle of 
ocean." Lucy Larcom (1 826-1893), too, was one of those 
who love the sea. The one of her poems that has perhaps 
touched the greatest number of hearts is Hannah Bind- 
ing Shoes, that glimpse into the life of the lonely woman 
of Marblehead with her pathetic question : — 

Is there from the fishers any news ? 
John Hay (1838-1905) forsook literature for the triumphs 



1813-19°°] 



LATER YEARS 



377 



of a noble diplomacy, but not until he had shown his 
ability as biographer and as poet. The first readers of 
his Pike County Ballads were not quite certain that he was 
not a bit irreverent ; but they soon recognized the manli- 
ness of his sentiment, however audacious its expression 
might appear. Jones Very (181 3-1 880) is still winning 
an increasing number of friends by his graceful, delicate 
thought and crystalline clearness of expression. Edward 
Rowland Sill (1 841-1887), though with few years of life 
and scanty leisure, made himself such an one as the king's 
son of his own Opportunity, who with the broken sword 

Saved a great cause that heroic day. 
His poems are marked by the insight which sees the 
difficulties of life and also the simple faith which bestows 
the courage to meet them and to look beyond them. 

Richard Watson Gilder (1844 ), greatest of the New 

York group, ever charms us by the delicate music of his 
verse. His finish is so artistic, so flawless, that some- 
times the first reading ot one of his poems does not re- 
veal to us the strength of feeling half hidden by the be- 
witching gleams of its beauty. Although we can boast 
of no poet of the first rank among these later writers, 
yet poetic ability is so widely distributed among Ameri- 
can authors and so much of its product is of excellence 
that we certainly have reason to expect a rapid progress 
to some worthy manifestation before many years of the 
twentieth century shall have passed. 

57. Humorous writings. There is no lack of hu- 
mor in the writings of Americans. Indeed, we are a 
little inclined to look askance at an author Charles 
who manifests no sense of the humorous, and Earner, 
to feel that something is lacking in his men- 1829-1900. 
tal make-up. The works of Irving, Holmes, Lowell, 
the charming essays of Warner, Mitchell, and Cur- 



37$ AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1814-1890 

tis, and the stories of Frank Stockton and others, are 
lighted up by humor on every page, sometimes keen and 
swift, sometimes graceful and poetic. These are humor- 
ists that make us smile. There are lesser humorists 
who make us laugh. Such was Charles Farrar Browne 
( 1 834-1 867), " Artemus Ward," who wrote over his show, 
" You cannot expect to go in without paying your money, 
but you can pay your money without going in." Such 
was Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber (1814-1890), "Mrs. 
Partington," who " could desecrate a turkey better " if 
she " understood its anathema," and who thought " Men 
ought not to go to war, but admit their disputes to agita- 
Lesser tion." His fun depended almost entirely upon 
humorists. misuse of words, Sheridan's old device in 
"Mrs. Malaprop " of The Rivals. Such was David Ross 
Locke (1833— 1888), " Petroleum Vesuvius Nasby," who 
was a political power in the years immediately following 
the Civil War. Henry Wheeler Shaw (1818-1885), 
" Josh Billings," gave plenty of good, substantia] advice. 
" Blessed is he who kan pocket abuse, and feel that it iz 
no disgrace tew be bit bi a dog." — " Most everyone 
seems tew be willing to be a phool himself, but he cant 
bear to have enny boddy else one." — " It is better to 
kno less, than to kno so mutch that ain't so." These are 
bits of the philosopher's wisdom. He, as well as Browne 
and Locke, depended in part upon absurdities of spelling 
to attract attention, a questionable resort save where, as 
in the Biglow Papers, it helps to bring a character before 
us. American humor is accused, and sometimes with 
justice, of depending upon exaggeration and irreverence. 
This humor has, nevertheless, a solid basis of shrewdness 
and good sense ; and, however crooked its spelling may be, 
it always goes straight to the point. Another character- 
istic quality is that in the "good stories " that are copied 



1835-1869] 



LATER YEARS 



379 



from one end of the land to the other, the hero does not 
get the better of the " other man " because the other 
man is a fool, but because he himself is bright. 

Our best living humorist is Samuel Langhorne 
Clemens, or " Mark Twain." He was born in samuei 
Missouri, and became printer, pilot, miner, re- q^^ 116 
porter, editor, lecturer, and author. His Inno- 1835- 
cents Abroad, the record of his first European trip, set 
the whole country laughing. The " Innocents " wander 
through Europe. They distress guides and cicerones by 
refusing to make the ecstatic responses to which these 
tyrants are accustomed. . When they are led to the bust 
of Columbus, they inquire with mock eagerness, " Is this 
the first time this gentleman was ever on a bust ? " The 
one place where they deign to show " tumultuous emo- 
tion " is at the tomb of Adam, whom they call tearfully 
a "blood relation," "a distant one, but still a relation." 
The book is a witty satire on sham enthusiasm ; . 

J # 7 Innocents 

but it is more than a satire, for Mark Twain Abroad, 
is not only a wit but a literary man. He can 1869, 
describe a scene like a poet if he chooses ; he can paint 
a picture and he can make a character live. Among his 
many books are two that show close historical study, 
The Personal Memoirs of Joan of Arc, and his ever de- 
lightful The Prince and the Pauper. The latter is a tale 
for children, wherein the prince exchanges clothes with 
the pauper, is put out of the palace grounds, and has 
many troubles before he comes to his own again. Mark 
Twain abominates shams of all sorts and looks upon them 
as proper targets for his artillery. His reputation as a 
humorist does not depend upon vagaries in spelling, or 
amusing deportment on the lecture platform. He is a 
clear-sighted, original, honest man, and his fun has a solid 
foundation of good sense. 



38o 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1822-1902 



58. History and biography. Our later historians have 
found their field in American chronicles. John Fiske 
(1 842-1901) has made scholarly interpretations of our 
colonial records. Henry Adams (1838- ), James 
Schouler (1839- )» Thomas Wentworth Higginson 
(1823- ), Justin Winsor (1831-1897), Edward Eggle- 
ston, and others have written of various periods in the 
history of our country. John Bach McMaster's (1852- 

) work is so full of vivid details that any stray 
paragraph is interesting reading. Hubert Howe Ban- 
croft's (1832- ) History of the Pacific Coast is a 
monumental work. Besides histories, we have many 
volumes of reminiscences, and biographies without num- 
ber. Surely, the future student of American life and 
manners will not be without plentiful material. Among 
the biographers, James Parton (1822-1891) and Horace 
Elisha Scudder (1 838-1902) are of specially high rank. 
Scudder and Higginson deserve lasting gratitude, not 
only for the quality of their own work, but for their 
resolute opposition to all that is not of the best. The 
biography of the beasts and birds has not been for- 
gotten. Many writers on nature are following in the foot- 
steps of John Burroughs (1837- )> a worthy disciple 
of Thoreau, who sees nature like a camera and describes 
her like a poet. Among these writers is Olive Thorne 
Miller (183 1- ), whose tender friendliness for ani- 
mals is shown even in the titles of her books, Little 
Brothers of the Air and Little Folks in Feathers and Fur. 

59. The magazine article. In American prose there 
has been of late a somewhat remarkable development of 
the magazine article, which is in many respects the suc- 
cessor of the lecture platform of some years ago. Its 
aim is to present information. The subject may be an 
invention, a discovery, literary criticism, reminiscence, 



i 827- ] 



LATER YEARS 



381 



biography, a study of nature, an account of a war, — 
what you will ; but it must give information. It must 
be brief and read- 
able. Technicalities 
must be translated 
into common terms, 
and necessarily it 
must be the work of 
an expert. Written 
with care and signed 
with the name of the 
author, these arti- 
cles become a pro- 
gressive encyclopae- 
dia of the advance- 
ment and thought 
of the age. 

Another type of 
magazine article is 
that written by Ag- 
nes Repplier, Sam- 
uel McChord Cro- 
thers, and others, 
which does not ap- 
parently aim at giv- 
ing information but 
seems rather to be 
the familiar, half- 
confidential talk of 
a widely read person 
with a gift for de- 
lightful monologue. 

The scope of our magazine articles suggests the 
breadth and diversity of pure scholarship in America. 




JOHN BURROUGHS 
A Bird in Sight 



382 AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1807- 

Among our best-known scholars are Charles Eliot Norton 
(1827- ), biographer and translator of Dante as well 
as critic of art ; Francis James Child (1 825-1 896), editor 
of English and Scottish Ballads ; Francis Andrew March 
(1825- ), our greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar; Felix 
Emanuel Schelling (1858- ), our best authority on 
the literature of the Elizabethan Age ; Horace Howard 
Furness (1833- ), the Shakespeare scholar ; and Cor- 
nelius Felton ( 1 807-1862), president of Harvard College, 
with his profound knowledge of Greek and the Greeks. 

60. Juvenile literature. Books for children have 
been published in enormous numbers. Even in the 
thirties they came out by scores in half a dozen cities of 
New England, in Cooperstown, Baltimore, New York, 
and elsewhere. In 1833 there was a " Juvenile Book- 
Store " in New York city. Many authors, Hawthorne, 
Mrs. Ward, Mark Twain, Trowbridge, and others have 
written books for children, but few have written for 
children alone. Among these latter, the principal ones 
are Jacob Abbott and Louisa May Alcott. 

Jacob Ab - J 

bott, 1803- More than two hundred books came from Ab- 
1879 " bott's pen, — the Rollo Boohs, the Lucy Books, 
and scores of simple histories and biographies. He is 
always interesting, for he always makes us want to know 
what is coming next. When, for instance, Rollo and 
Jennie and the kitten in the cage are left by mistake to 
cross the ocean by themselves, even a grown-up will turn 
the page with considerable interest to see how they man- 
age matters. Abbott never " writes down " to children. 
Even when he is giving them substantial moral advice, he 
writes as if he were talking with equals ; and few child- 
ish readers of his books ever skip the little lectures. 

Louisa May Alcott was a Philadelphia girl who grew 
up in Concord. She wrote for twenty years without 



1 868- ] LATER YEARS 383 

any special success. Then she published Little Wo- 
men, and this proved to be exactly what the 
young folk wanted. It is a clean, fresh, Si^tt*** 7 
"homey" book about young people who are 1832-1888. 
not too good or too bright to be possible. They women, 
are not so angelic as Mrs. Burnett's Little 1868, 
Lord Fauntleroy ; but they are lovable and thoroughly 
human. A number of other books followed Little 
Women, all about sensible, healthy-minded boys and 
girls. Within the last fifty years or more many papers 
and magazines have been published for young people ; 
such as Merry s Museum, Our Young Folks, Wide 
Awake, and St. Nicholas. The patriarch of them all is 
The Youth's Companion, whose rather priggish name 
suggests its antiquity. It was founded in 1827 by the 
father of N. P. Willis. In its fourscore years of life 
it has kept so perfectly in touch with the spirit of the 
age that to read its files is an interesting literary study. 
It seems a long way back from its realistic stories of 
to-day to the times when, for instance, a beggar — in a 
book — petitioned some children, " Please to bestow your 
charity on a poor blind man, who has no other means of 
subsistence but from your beneficence." The Yout/is 
Companion has followed literary fashions ; but through- 
out its long career its aim to be clean, wholesome, and 
interesting has never varied. 

61. Literary progress. Counting from the very be- 
ginning, our literature is not yet three hundred years 
old. The American colonists landed on the shores of a 
new country. They had famine and sickness to endure, 
the savages and the wilderness to subdue. It is little 
wonder that for many decades the pen was rarely taken 
in hand save for what was regarded as necessity. What 
literary progress has been made may be seen by compar- 



384 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1865- 



ing Anne Bradstreet with Longfellow and Lanier, Cot- 
ton Mather with Parkman and Fiske, the New England 
Primer with the best of the scores of books for children 
that flood the market every autumn. We have little 
drama, but in fiction, poetry, humorous writings, essays, 
biography, history, and juvenile books, we produce an 
immense amount of composition. The pessimist wails 
that the motto of this composition is the old cry, " Bread 
and the games ! " — that we demand only what will give 
us a working knowledge of a subject, or something 
that will amuse us. The optimist points to the high 
average of this writing, and to the fact that everybody 
reads. Many influences are at work ; who shall say 
what their resultant will be? One thing, however, is 
certain, — he who reads second-rate books is helping to 
lower the literary standard of his country, while he who 
lays down a poor book to read a good one is not only 
doing a thing that is for his own advantage, but is in- 
creasing the demand for good literature that almost 
invariably results in its production. 



The National Period 



II. Later Years 



Writers of Fiction 



William Dean Howells 
Henry James 
Francis Marion Crawford 
Edward Everett Hale 
Frank Richard Stockton 
George Washington Cable 
Richard Malcolm Johnston 
John Esten Cooke 
Thomas Nelson Page 
Joel Chandler Harris 
Mary Noailles Murfree 



Edward Eggleston 
John TownsendTrowbridge 
Mary E. Wilkins Freeman 
Sarah Orne Jewett 
Alice Brown 

Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward 
Rose Terry Cooke 
Kate Douglas Wiggin Riggs 
Helen Hunt Jackson 
Frances Hodgson Burnett 
Mary Hallock Foote 



James Lane Allen 



i865- ] LATER YEARS 385 

Poets. 

Bayard Taylor Celia Thaxter 

Richard Henry Stoddard Lucy Larcom 

Edmund Clarence Stedman John Hay 

Thomas Bailey Aldrich Jones Very 

Francis Bret Harte Edward Rowland Sill 

Walt Whitman Richard Watson Gilder 

Humorists 

Washington Irving Frank Richard Stockton 

Oliver Wendell Holmes Charles Farrar Browne 

James Russell Lowell Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber 

Charles Dudley Warner David Ross Locke 

Donald Grant Mitchell Henry Wheeler Shaw 

' George William Curtis Samuel Langhorne Clemens 

Historians and Biographers 

John Fiske John Bach McMaster 

Henry Adams Hubert Howe Bancroft 

James Schouler James Parton 

Thomas Wentworth Higginson Horace Elisha Scudder 
Justin Winsor 

Naturalists. Writers for Children. 

John Burroughs . Jacob Abbott 

Olive Thorne Miller Louisa May Alcott 

SUMMARY 

Much literature has been produced since the war. The 
greater part of it is fiction. This is marked by realism, whose 
apostles are Howells and James. Many authors have revealed 
the literary possibilities of different parts of our country. The 
short story has been successfully developed. Historical 
novels and also the one-character novel are in favor. To the 
poets especially, the monthly magazines have been of much 
advantage. New York stands at present as our poetic cen- 
tre. Taylor, Stoddard, Stedman, and Aldrich are counted as 
part of the New York group. In 1868 Bret Harte was made 
famous by his stories and poems of the mining camp. Walt 
Whitman is a poet of no humble rank. He believed in writ- 
ing on all subjects and in avoiding poetic form and rhythm, 



386 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE [1865- 



but is at his best when he forgets his theories. There is much 
humor in American writings. Of the lesser humorists, Browne, 
Locke, and Shaw depended in part upon incorrect spelling, 
and Shillaber upon a comical misuse of words. Our best 
humorist is Clemens. He is not only a wit, but also a man of 
much literary talent. His fun is always founded upon common 
sense. Most of our historians have chosen American history 
as their theme. Many volumes of biographies and reminis- 
cences have been published. The magazine article has taken 
the place of the lecture platform and the magazines form a 
progressive encyclopaedia of the advancement of the world. 
Great numbers of children's books have appeared. Among 
those authors that have written for children alone are Abbott 
and Miss Alcott. Many juvenile magazines and papers have 
been founded. The Youth's Companion is the oldest of all. 
Many literary influences are at work. What the resultant 
will be is still unknown. 



Writers who are remembered by a single work 

Ethelinda Beers, 

All quiet along the Potomac 
David Everett, 

You V scarce expect one of 



Albert G. Greene, 

Old Grimes 
James Fenno Hoffman, 

Sparkling and Bright 
Francis Hopkinson, 

The Battle of the Kegs 
Joseph Hopkinson, 

Hail Columbia 
Julia Ward Howe, 

The Battle-Hymn of the Re- 
public 
Francis Scott Key, 

The Star-Spangled Banner 
Guy Humphrey Mc Master, 

Carmen Bellicosum 



Clement C. Moore, 

''Twas the night before 
Christmas 
George Perkins Morris, 

Woodman, spare that tree 
William Augustus Muhlenberg, 

/ would not live alway 
Theodore O'Hara, 

The Bivouac of the Dead 
John Howard Payne, 

Home, Sweet Home 
Albert Pike, 

Dixie 
James Rider Randall, 

Maryland, My Maryland 
Thomas Buchanan Read, 

Sheridan's Ride 
Abraham Joseph Ryan, 
The Conquered Banner 



i86s- ] AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



Epes Sargent, Frank O. Ticknor, 

A Life on the Ocean Wave Virginians of the Valley 

Samuel Francis Smith, Samuel Woodworth, < 
My Country, "'tis of thee The Old Oaken Bucket 



REFERENCES 

ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 

The following lists of books are of course not expected to 
be in any degree exhaustive. Their main object is, first, to 
suggest some few of the great number of criticisms and his- 
tories of literature that may be helpful to the student ; second, 
to tell where good editions of complete works or selections 
from some of the less accessible authors may be found. 

For general consultation throughout the course the follow- 
ing authorities are recommended : — 

For history, manners, and customs ; Green's Short History 
of the English People, Gardiner's Student's History of England, 
Traill's Social England. For history of literature, Jusserand's 
Literary History of the English People from the Origins to the 
Renaissance. For history of the language, Lounsbury's History 
of the English Language. For biography, the Dictionary of 
National Biography is the standard work. See also the Eng- 
lish Men of Letters Series. Three works, Craik's English 
Prose Selections (5 vols.), Ward's English Poets (4 vols.), and 
Morley's English Writers (11 vols.), contain well-chosen selec- 
tions from the works of nearly all the authors" named, and 
are almost a necessity to students who are not able to consult 
a large library. For separate texts the volumes of the River- 
side Literature Series are of special value because of their 
careful editing, good binding, and reasonable price. Cassell's 
National Library is also inexpensive and convenient. 

Centuries V-XIII 

Freeman's Old English History. 
Sharon Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons. 
Brooke's English Literature f?-o?n the Beginning to the Norman 
Conquest. 

Brother Azarias's Development of English Literature. 



REFERENCES 



389 



Beowulf has been translated by C. G. Child {Riverside Literat7ire 
Series), Garnett, Hall, Morris and Wyatt, and others. Much of 
the poem is given in Brooke's History of Early English Litera- 
ture and Morley's English Writers. Morley, vol. i, contains 
Widsith, passages from Caedmon and Cynewulf, and also speci- 
mens of the old Celtic literature. 

The Exeter Book has been translated by Gollancz (Early English 
Text Society) ; also by Benjamin Thorpe. 

Bede's Ecclesiastical History and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are 
contained in one volume of Bohn's Antiquarian Library. 

Alfred's Orosius and Pauli's Life of Alfred are in one volume of 
Bohn's Antiquarian Library. Asser's Life of Alfred has been 
edited by A. S. Cook (Ginn). 

Extracts from the Or milium, the Ancren Riwle, the History of 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, Layamon's Brut, and King Horti (with 
glossary) are contained in Morris and Skeat's Speci?nens of Early 
English, vol. i. 

Robin Hood Ballads are contained in Child's English and Scottish 

Popular Ballads. 
Geoffrey of Monmouth's History is contained in Giles's Six Old 

English Chronicles (Bohn's A7itiquarian Library^ 

Century XIV 

Jusserand's Wayfaring Life in the Fourteenth Century. 
Wright's History of Do?nestic Manners and Sentiments in Eng- 
land during the Middle Ages. 
E. L. Cutts's Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. 
Tudor Jenks's In the Days of Chaucer. 

Mandeville's Voyages and Travels, Cassell's National Library. 
Morris and Skeat's Specimens of Early English, vol. ii, con- 
tains selections from Mandeville, Langland, Wyclif, and Chaucer. 

Chaucer's Prolog7ie, Knight's Tale, and Nun's Priest's Tale (with 
glossary) are published in one volume of the Riverside Litera- 
ture Series. Lowell's Literary Essays, vol. iii, contains a delight- 
ful appreciation of Chaucer. 

Century XV 

Green's Town Life in the Fifteenth Century. 
Denton's England in the Fifteenth Century. 
Jusserand's Romance of a King's Life (James I). 



39Q 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



The King's Quair, edited by Skeat. 

Malory's Morte d" 1 Arthur, edited by Sommer and also by Gollancz. 
Morris and Skeat's Specimens of Early English, vol. iii, contains 
selections from the King's Quair, the Morte a 1 " 1 Arthur, and Cax- 
ton's Recuyell of the History es of Troye. 

Ballads. Child's English and Scottish Popular Ballads is th^ 
great authority. Percy's Reliques. Gummere's Old English Bal- 
lads contains a well-chosen group and also a valuable introduc- 
tion. 

Mystery plays and Moralities. The York Plays, edited by Lucy 
Toulmin Smith ; The English Religioiis Drama, by K. L. Bates. 
English Miracle Plays, Moralities, and Interludes, by A. W. 
Pollard, contains Everyman. Morley's Specimens of the Pre- 
Shakespearian Drama contains The Foure P's, Ralph Roister 
Doister, Gorboduc, Campaspe, etc. 

Century XVI 

Ward's History of English Dramatic Literature (3 vols.). 
Lowell's Old English Dra?natists. 

Lamb's Specimens of English Dramatic Poets (Bohn's A ?itiqua- 

rian Library). 
Saintsbury's History of Elizabethan Literature. 
E. P. Whipple's Literature of the Age of Elizabeth. 
Lowell's Literary Essays, vol. iv, contains his essay on Spenser ; 

in vol. iii is his essay on Shakespeare. 
Schelling's The English Chronicle Play. 
Schelling's The Queen's Progress. 

Jusserand's The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare. 

Goadby's The England of Shakespeare. 

Ordish's Shakespeare 's London. 

Warner's The People for whom Shakespeare wrote. 

Tudor Jenks's In the Days of Shakespeare. 

Sidney Lee's A Life of William Shakespeare and Shakespeare's 

Life and Work. 
Rolfe's Shakespeare the Boy. 
Dowden's Shakespeare Primer. 
Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar. 

Lamb's Specimens of English Dramatic Poets who lived about 
the Time of Shakespeare contains Gorboduc, Tamburlaine, 
Edward II, The Rich few of Malta, Dr. Eaustus, etc. The 



REFERENCES 



391 



Mermaid Series contains the best plays of Beaumont and 
Fletcher, Marlowe, and others. Morris and Skeat's Specimens 
of Early English, vol. iii, 'contains selections from Skelton, 
Tyndale, Surrey, Wyatt, also Ralph Roister Bolster, Euphnes, 
and The Shepherd's Cale?idar. 
The Merjnaid Series contains a most valuable selection of the plays 
of this age. 

Utopia. CasselPs National Library, Morley's Universal Library, 
Came lot Series, Temple Classics, etc. 

Wyatt and Surrey. TotteVs Miscellany in Arber's English Re- 
prints. 

The Foure P's. Full extracts in Morley's English Plays. 

Ralph Roister Doister, and Gorboduc. Morley's English Plays and 
Manly's Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearian Drama. 

Lyly. Euphues in Arber's Reprints. Endymion, edited by G. P. 
Baker (Holt). Campaspe is in Manly's Specimens of the Pre- 
Shakespearian Dra?na. 

Spenser. The Riverside edition (3 vols.), edited by F. J. Child, is 
authoritative. The Globe edition is in one volume. Minor poems 
in the Temple Classics (Macmillan) ; The Shepherd's Calendar 
in Cassell's National Library. The Faerie Queene, Bk. I, in 
Riverside Literature Series. 

Sidney. Arcadia, edited by H. Friswell. Prose selections, edited 
by G. Macdonald in the Elizabethan Library. Defence of Poesie, 
in Cassell's National Library. Astrophel and Stella, edited by 
A. Pollard (Scott). 

Lyrics. A Book of Elizabethan Lyrics, edited by F. E. Schelling. 
Lyrics from the Dramatists of the Elizabethan Age, edited by 
A. H. Bullen. 

Marlowe. Chief plays in the Mermaid Series. Dr. Faustus in the 
Tetnple Dramatists, in Morley's English Plays, and in Morley's 
Universal Library. 

Hooker. Ecclesiastical Polity, Books I-IV, in Morley's Universal 
Library. 

Shakespeare. Good editions are numerous. Furness's Variorum 
is best for advanced work. For the beginner, Julius Cojsar, 
The Merchant of Venice, Macbeth, The Te?npest, and selec- 
tions from the sonnets are recommended. The Winter's Tale is 
published in one volume of Cassell's National Library together 
with Greene's Pandosto. 



392 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



Century XVII 

Saintsbury's Elizabethan Literature (to 1660). 

Lowell's Literary Essays, vol. iv, contains his essay on Milton ; 
vol. iii that on Dryden. 

Gosse's Jacobean Poets. 

Gosse's Seventeenth Century Studies. 

Lowell's Old English Dramatists. 

Macaulay's Essays on Milton and Bunyan. 

Schelling's Seventeenth Century Lyrics. 

Lamb's On the Artificial Comedy of the Last Century. 

The chief plays of this age are found in the Mermaid Series. 

Bacon. Essays are published in Morley's Universal Library, also 
in Macmillan's English Classics and in CasselPs National Li- 
brary. Learning, Book I, has been edited by A. S. Cook (Ginn). 

Jonson. Several of his masques are in H. A. Evans's English 
Masques. Timber, edited by F. E. Schelling (Ginn); three of 
his best plays and The Sad Shepherd are in Morley's Universal 
Library. 

Beaumont and Fletcher. Best plays are in the Mermaid Series. 
Donne's poems are in the Muses' 1 Library, edited by E. K. Cham- 
bers. 

Milton. Masson's Poetical Works of John Milton (3 vols.) is the 
standard edition. Paradise Lost, Books I— III, and earlier 
poems with notes and biographical sketch in Riverside Litera- 
ture Series ; also in Cassell's National Library (2 vols.). Mil- 
ton's Minor Poems (Allyn and Bacon). 

Herbert. The Temple is in Morley's Universal Library, also in 
Cassell's National Library. 

Crashaw. Poems, edited by Turnbull, are in Library of Old Au- 
thors ; edited by Grosart, in Fuller's Worthies' 1 Library. 

Vaughan. Poems, edited by E. K. Chambers, in Muse/ Library. 

Taylor. Holy Living and Holy Dying, in Bonn's Standard Li- 
brary. Selections, edited by E. E. Wentworth (Ginn). 

Carew, Lovelace, Suckling. Selections are in Cavalier and Cour- 
tier Lyrists, Canterbury Poets Series (Scott). 

Herrick. Hesperides and Noble Numbers, edited by A. Pollard. 
Selections in Athenaum Press Series (Ginn). Lyrics, selected 
from Hesperides and Noble Numbers, by T. B. Aldrich (Century 
Co.). 



REFERENCES 



393 



Walton. Compleat Angler ; in Cassell's National Library. Lives of 

Donne and Herbert in Morley's Universal Library. 
Butler. Selections from Hudibras in Morley's Universal Library. 
Bunyan. The Pilg?-im , s Progress in Riverside Literature Series. 
Dryden. Religio Laici, etc. in Cassell's National Library j also 

selections from his poems. Poetical Works, edited by W. P. 

Christie ; select poems edited by Christie (Clarendon Press). 

Palamon and Arcite, edited by Arthur Gilman, Riverside Lit- 

erature Series. 

Century XVIII 

Gosse's History of English Literature in the Eighteenth Cen- 
tury. 

Ashton's Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne. 

Susan Hale's Men and Manners of the Eighteenth Century. 

Thackeray's English Humorists. 

Johnson's Lives of the Poets (see Johnson's works). 

Leslie Stephen's Hours in a Library. 

Macaulay's Essay on Addison, edited by W. P. Trent, Riverside 

Literature Series. 
De Quincey's Essay 071 Pope. 
Lowell's Among my Books. 

Eighteenth Century Letters, edited by R. B. Johnson. 
Lanier's The English Novel. 

Carlyle's Essay on Burns, edited by George R. Noyes, Riverside 
Literature Series. 

Carlyle on Burns and Scott, Cassell's National Library. 

Pope. Essay on Man, edited by Mark Pattison (Clarendon Press); 
Essay on Man, Rape of the Lock, etc. edited by Henry W. Boyn- 
ton, Riverside Lite?'ature Series. 

Addison and Steele. The Sir Roger de Cover ley Papers, edited 
by Eustace Budgell, Riverside Literature Series ; also edited 
by Samuel Thurber, Allyn and Bacon. Selections, Athenaum 
Press, Golden Treasury Series, etc. Selections fro7n the Specta- 
tor, edited by J. Habberton (Putnam): from the Tatler and the 
Guardian, together with Macaulay's Essays on Steele and Ad- 
dison (Bangs). Steele's plays are in the Mermaid Series. 

Swift. Gullivers Voyage to Brobdingnag and Voyage to Lilliput, 
Riverside Literature Series. Selections, Ginn, Clarendon Press, 
etc. Selected Letters in R. B. Johnson's Eighteenth Century Let- 



394 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



ters and Letter- Writers. Battle of the Books in Cassell's Na- 
tional Library. 

Defoe. Robinson Crusoe, Riverside Literature Series ; Journal of 
the Plague Year, numerous school editions. Essay on Projects, 
Cassell's National Library. 

Johnson. Lives of the Poets, Cassell's National Library. Six Chief 
Lives from Johnson's Lives of the Poets together with Macaulay's 
Life of Johnson, edited by M. Arnold (Macmillan). Rasselas 
in Morley's Universal Library ; and also in Cassell's National 
Library. V 

Goldsmith. Vicar of Wakefield, Poems, and Plays, in Morley's 
Universal Library ; The Vicar of Wakefield, edited by Mrs. H. 
A. Davidson, in Riverside Literature Series (with introduction, 
notes, aids to study, etc.). 

Burke. On Conciliation, edited by Robert Andersen, Riverside 
Literature Series. A?nerican Speeches with Essay on the Sub- 
lime and Beautiful (Macmillan). 

Percy. Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. Bohn and other 
editions. 

Gray. Elegy and Other Poems ; Cowper's John Gilpin and Other 
Poems (i vol.), Riverside Literature Series. Selections from 
Cowper in Athenaeum Press Series, Canterbury Poets, etc. 

Burns. Selected poems in Riverside Literature Series ; also in 
Atheno3Ujn Press Series. 

Century XIX 

Leslie Stephen's Hours in a Library. 

Saintsbury's A History of Nineteenth Century Literature. 

Stedman's Victorian Poets. 

Bagehot's Literary Studies (Thackeray, Dickens, Macaulay, Ten- 
nyson, Browning). 
McCarthy's History of Our Own Times. 
Dowden's Studies in Literature (i 789-1877). 

Wordsworth. Selected Poems, Riverside Literature Series ; also 

in Golden Treasury Series ; Cassell's National Library. 
Coleridge. Selections from Coleridge, in Athenceum Press Series. 

Selections from Prose Writings, edited by H. A. Beers (Holt); 

Selections from Coleridge and Campbell, Riverside Literature 

Series. 

Southey. Life of Nelson, Curse of Kehama, Cassell's National Li- 



REFERENCES 



395 



brary. Selections in Canterbury Poets Series j Life of Nelson in 
Morley's Universal Library, also in Longmans' English Classics. 

Scott. The Lady of the Lake, Cassell's National Library ; The 
Lay of the Last Minstrel, edited by W. J. Rolfe, Riverside Lit- 
erature Series j Ivanhoe, Riverside Literature Series. 

Byron. Selected Poems, Riverside Literature Series, edited by 
F. I. Carpenter (Holt). 

Shelley. Selections in Heath's English Classics; also in Golden 
Treasury Series. 

Keats. Ode on a Grecia?i Urn and Other Poems, Riverside Lit- 
erature Series. Endymion, etc., Cassell's Natio?ial Library. 
Selected Poems in A thenczum Press Series and Golden Treasury 
Series. 

Lamb. Tales from Shakespeare, Riverside Literature Series. 
Essays of Elia, in Camelot Classics, and elsewhere. Specimens 
of English Dra?natic Poets, Bohn. Selected Essays, Riverside 
Literature Series. 

De Ouincey. The Flight of a Tartar Tribe, Riverside Literature 
Series. Confessions of an English Opium-Eater, Morley's Uni- 
versal Library, Temple Classics. Selections, edited by Bliss 
Perry (Doubleday, Page and Co.). 

Macaulay. Essays on Johnson and Goldsmith (i vol.) Essays on 
Milton and Addison (i vol.), Riverside Literature Series and 
Cassell's National Library. Lays of Ancient Rome, Riverside 
Literature Series. Heroes and Her o-Wor ship, in Athenceum 
Press Series. 

Ruskin. Sesame and Lilies, Riverside Literature Series. Selected 
Essays and Letters (Ginn). Selections, edited by V. D. Scudder 
(Heath). 

Arnold. Sohrab and Rustum and Other Poems, Riverside Litera- 
ture Series, edited by Louise Imogen Guiney. Poems (i vol.) 
(Macmillan). Introduction to Ward's English Poets, vol. i. 

Browning. The Pied Piper of Hamelin and Other Poems, River- 
side Literature Series. 

Tennyson. Enoch Arden and Other Poems, Riverside Literature 
Series. The Princess, edited by W. J. Rolfe, Riverside Litera- 
ture Series. Idylls of the King, edited by W. J. Rolfe (Hough- 
ton, Mifflin and Co.) ; edited by H. W. Boynton (Allyn and 
Bacon). 



39^ 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 

The following works are of value for general reference t 

Stedman and Hutchinson's Library of American Literature (n 
vols.) (W. E. Benjamin) contains selections from nearly all the 
authors named in this book. 

Hart's American History told by Contemporaries (4 vols.) (Mac- 
millan). 

Richardson's History of American Literature (2 vols.) (Putnam). 
Whipple's History of American Literature, Harper's Magazine, 
1876. 

Stedman's An American Anthology (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 
Stedman's Poets of America (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 

Colonial and Revolutionary Times 

Tyler's History of America7i Literature during the Colonial Times 
(Putnam). 

R. C. Winthrop's Life and Letters of fohn Winthrop (Little, Brown 
and Co.). 

Helen Campbell's Anne Bradstreet and her Time (Lothrop). 
Bradford's History of 'Plymouth, published by the Commonwealth 

of Massachusetts. 
Winthrop's History of New England (2 vols.) (Little, Brown and 

Co.). 

Bay Psalm Book (reprint) (Dodd, Mead and Co.). 
Wigglesworth's Day of Doom, edited by J. W. Dean. 
The New England Primer, edited by Paul Leicester Ford (Dodd, 
Mead and Co.). 

Trent and Wells's Colonial Prose and Poetry (3 vols.) (Crowell). 
Tyler's History of the Literature of the American Revolution 

(2 vols.) (Putnam). 
Wendell's Life of Cotton Mather (Dodd, Mead and Co.). 
Kate M. Cone's Cotton Mather's Daughter (The Outlook, vol. 81, 

nos. 6, 7). 

Allen's Life of fonathan Edwards (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 
McMaster's Life of Benjamin Franklin (Houghton, Mifflin and 
Co.). 

Ford's The Many-Sided Franklin (The Century Co.). 

Tyler's Three Men of Letters {Berkeley, Dwight, Barlow) (Putnam). 



REFERENCES 



397 



Todd's Barlow 'j Life and Letters (Putnam). 

Austin's Philip Freneau, A History of his Life and Times (A. 
Wessels Co.). 

Dunlap's Life of Charles Brockden Brown (2 vols.)(James P. Parke). 
Smyth's The Philadelphia Magazines and their Contribtitors 
(Lindsay). 

Mather's Magnalia Christi, reprinted 1853 (Silas Andrews & Son). 
Edwards's- Works.(2 vols.) (Bohn). 

Franklin's Works (10 vols.) edited by John Bigelow (Putnam). 
Franklin's Autobiography (3 vols.), edited by John Bigelow (Put- 
nam). 

Franklin's Autobiography, Riverside Literature Series. 
Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac, Riverside Literature Series. 
The Federalist, edited by P. L. Ford (Holt). 
Trumbull's MFi7igal (Samuel G. Goodrich). 

Frejieaii's Poems (3 vols.), edited by Pattee (Princeton University 
Library). 

Songs and Ballads of the American Revolution, edited by Frank 
Moore (Appleton). 

The National Period 

For biography, consult the American Men of Letters Series 
(Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). This contains lives of Irving, Tho- 
reau, Cooper, Emerson, Poe, Willis, Franklin, Bryant, Simms, 
Taylor. Hawthorne, Longfellow, Whittier, Prescott, Parkman, 
Bret Harte, Holmes, Motley, Whitman, Curtis, Margaret Fuller, 
and Webster. 

Irving's Life and Letters (4 vols.), edited by P. M. Irving (Putnam). 
J. G. Wilson's Bryant and his Friends (Fords). 
Halleck's.Zz/2? and Letters, edited by J. G. Wilson (Appleton). 
The Poetical Writings of Halleck, edited by J. G. Wilson (Apple- 
ton). 

Life and Letters of Longfellow, by Samuel Longfellow (3 vols.) 

(Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 
Higginson's Contemporaries (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 
S. T. Pickard's Life and Letters of fohn Greenleaf Whittier (2 

vols.) (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 
E. E. Hale's fames Russell Lowell and his Friends (Houghton, 

Mifflin and Co.). 

H. E. Scudder's fames Russell Lowell : A Biography (2 vols.) 
(Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 



398 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



J. T. Morse's Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes (2 vols.) 
(Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 

J. E. Cabot's Ralph Waldo Emerson, A Memoir (2 vols.) (Hough- 
ton, Mifflin and Co.). 

The Correspondence of Ejnerson and Carlyle (2 vols.) (Houghton, 
Mifflin and Co.). 

Houghton, Mifflin and Co. are the only authoritative publishers 
of the works of the following writers : Longfellow in 1 1 vols. 
Whittier in 7 ; Lowell in 1 1 ; Holmes in 14 ; Emerson in 12 ; Thoreau 
in 11 ; Hawthorne in 13 ; Mrs. Stowe in 16. The same publishers 
have also brought out one-volume editions of the above New Eng- 
land poets. Many selections are published in the various numbers 
of the Riverside Literature Series and in American Poeins and 
A?nerican Prose, edited by H. E. Scudder. The Riverside Litera- 
ture Series contains a large number of selections from their writings. 

JVathanie l Hawthorne and his Wife, by Julian Hawthorne (Hough- 
ton, Mifflin and Co.). 
Henry James's Life of Hawthorne (Harper). 

Mrs. James T. Fields's Life of H arriet Beecher Stowe (Houghton, 

Mifflin and Co.). 
Bancroft's History of the United States (6 vols.) (Little, Brown and 

Co.). 

Prescott's Works (12 vols.) (Lippincott). 
Motley's Works (17 vols.) (Harper). 
Parkman's Works (12 vols.) (Little, Brown and Co.). 
Ticknor's Life of Prescott (Ticknor and Fields). 
Motley's Letters, edited by G. W. Curtis (2 vols.) (Harper). 
Holmes's A Memoir of Motley (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 
C. H. Farnham's LJfe of Francis Parkman (Little, Brown and 
Co.). 

Manly's Southern Literature (Johnson). 
Baskervill's Southern Writers (Barbee). 

S. A. Link's Pioneers of Southern Literature, including Hayne, 
Timrod, Simms, Cooke, Poe, and others (Barbee and Smith). 

Simms's Novels (10 vols.) (Armstrong). 

Simms's Poems (2 vols.) (Redfield). 

Hayne's Poe?ns (Lothrop). 

Timrod's Poems (Houghton, Mifflin, and Co.). 

Poe's Works (n vols.) (Stone and Kimball). (17 vols.) (Cro- 
well). 



REFERENCES 



399 



The works of the later authors are so generally accessible as to 
make special reference unnecessary. For biographical data, con- 
sult Who's Who in America, and for both criticism and biography 
consult the magazine articles which may be found through Poole's 
Index, and the Cumtdative Index. 

An exceedingly valuable list of references to poems and maga- 
zine articles as well as books relating to Bryant, Poe, Emerson, 
Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Lowell, Whitman, and Lanier may 
be found in The Chief America.7i Poets, by Curtis Hidden Page 
(Houghton, Mifflin and Co.). 



INDEX 



ENGLAND'S LITERATURE 



References to summaries and lists of names are printed in heavy type. The 
location on the colored map of the places mentioned in the text is indicated. 



Abbotsford, map i, Ca ; 205 ; 206; 207. 

A Becket, Thomas, 44. 

Absalom and Achitophel, 148. 

Abyssinia, 177. 

Adam, 36, 141, 142. 

Adam Bede, 229, 230. 

Addison, Joseph, portrait, 159; 'love for 
Swift, 166 ; Johnson compared with, 
I 75> l 77\ 2 3 2 - See Addison and 
Steele. 

Addison and Steele, account of, 158-163; 

194; 195- 

Address to the Deil, 192. 
Adonais, 211. 
JEAiric, homilies of, 21, 24. 
jEneas, 30. 

j<Eneid, Surrey's, 75 ; Dryden's, 149. 
iEsop's Fables, 64. 
Africa, 38, 65. 
" Age of Arrest," 54. 
Age of the Pen, 247-251. 
Albert, Prince, 246. 
Alcuin, account of, 16 ; 24. 
Aleppo, 180. 
Alexander 's Feast, 149. 
Alexander the Great, in romance, 29, 
34- 

Alfred the Great, account of, 16-20 ; 
portrait, 17; 23; 24; 83. 

Allegory. See Pilgrim's Progress, 
Faerie Queene. 

Alliteration, in Old English poetry, 6 ; 
disappearing, 22 ; 24 ; in Piers Plow- 
man, the last alliterative poem, 39, 
40 ; Chaucer's use of, 49. 

Amelia, in Vanity Fair, 227. 

America, literature affected by discov- 
eries in, 69; by Revolution in, 186. 

Ancient Mariner, The Rime of the, 
198, 252. 

Ancren Riuvle, The, 28, 30, 34. 

Angles, 1, 2. 

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, begun, 19 ; 20 ; 
21 ; 23 ; 24 ; ends, 30. 



Anglo-Saxon metre, 6, 7 ; used by 
Langland, 39, 40 ; abandoned by 
Chaucer, 49, 51. 

Anglo-Saxon poetry, remains of, 8 ; 24. 

Apelles 1 Song, 89. 

Apollyon, in Pilgrim's Progress, 144, 
Arcadia, 86-88; printed, 92; 101. 
Arctic Ocean, 81. 
Arctic Circle, 184. 
Areopagitica, 121-122. 
Armada, Spanish, 92. 
Armour, Jean, 191. 
Arnold, Dr., 238. 

Arnold, Matthew, 230 ; account of, 238- 

239 ; 252 ; 254 ; 255. 
Arthur, in cycle of romance, 29 ; 30 ; 

34 ; 54 ; 66 ; Milton's proposed epic 

of, 140 ; 245. 
Asia, 180, 220. 
Ask Me no More, 132, 133. 
Astrophel and Stella, 94. 
Atirora Leigh, 241. 

Austen, Jane, 203 ; account of, 221-222; 

252; 254. 
Austen, Lady, 188. 

Author, a mediaeval, at work, illustra- 
tion, 15. 

" Authorized version." See Bible. 
Avon River, map 1, CDb ; 95 ; 96 ; 
106. 

Aylmar, in King Hortt, 30. 

Bacon, Francis, account of, 106-109 J 
150 ; 151 ; 161. 

Ballads, early, 21-22, 24; of Robin 
Hood, 32-33, 34; of the fifteenth cen- 
tury, 55-56; marks of, 56-57; Celtic 
influence on, 57, 67 ; in sixteenth cen- 
tury, 81; in Percy's Reliqites, 187; 
of Coleridge and Wordsworth, 198; 
of the Scottish Border, 204-205. 

Baltic Sea, 16. 

Banks o' Doon, 191. 

Bannockbum, 191. 



402 



INDEX 



Barrett, Elizabeth, 239-240. See Eliz- 
abeth Barrett Browning. 

Bassanio, in The Merchant of\Venice, 
100. 

Bastile, 174. 

Battle of the Books, 164. 

Baxter, Richard, account of, 131-132 ; 

Beaumont, Francis, 105. See Beaumont 

and Fletcher. 
Beaumont and Fletcher, their skill in 

plots, no ; account of, 114 ; 150 ; 151. 
Becky Sharp, in Vanity Fair, 227. 
Bede, account of, 12-16; 18; 19; 23- 

24. 

Bedford, map 1, Db; 144; 146. 

Bentley, Richard, criticises Pope's 
Iliad x 157. 

Beowulf, story of, 3-5 ; facsimile of 
MS., 5; changed by Christianity, 5-6 ; 
lines from, 6 ; 8 ; compared with The 
Dream of the Rood, 23 ; 24 ; treat- 
ment of woman in, 31 ; 40 ; 250. 

Bible, paraphrased by Caedmon, 10 ; 
translated by Wyclif, 41-43 ; trans- 
lated by Tyndale, 73, 101 ; " King 
James version," 109-110; 151 ; basis 
of Paradise Lost, 141 ; Bunyan's 
knowledge of, 145; 193; Ruskinuses 
vocabulary of, 237. 

Bird, The, 128. 

Black Death, 36, 40, 50. 

Blackwood 's Magazine, 213, 218, 221, 
229, 253. 

Blank verse, 75 ; gaining ground in the 
drama, 89 ; its power shown by Mar- 
lowe, 90 ; becomes accepted metre of 
the drama, 102. 

Blenheim, 159. 

Blessed Damozel, The, 248. 

Blue-Coat School, 214, 217. 

Boccaccio, 44, 51. 

Boldness in thought, 72 ; in literature, 

81, 101. 
Bonaparte, 206. 
Book of Snobs, 226. 
Boswell, James, account of, 177-178 ; 

195- 

Boswell, Mrs., 178. 
Bride of Abydos, The, 209. 
Britton's Bower of Delights, 88. 
Brobdingnag, in Gulliver's Travels, 
165, 166. 

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 240, 241, 
242, 255. 

Browning, Robert, account of, 239-243 ; 

portrait, 240 ; 250 ; 252 ; 255. 
Brut, 30, 34. 
Brutus, 30. 



Bunyan, John, account of, 143-146 ; por- 
trait, 143 ; 151 ; 152. 

Burke, Edmund, 178 ; 181 ; account of, 
183-184; 194; 195. 

Burns, Robert, 128 ; account of, 189- 
194; 196; 197; 250. 

Butler, Samuel, account of, 139-140 ; 
151; 152- 

Byron, Lord, 202, 203, 205 ; account of, 
207-210; 2x1; 213; 214; 218; 222; 
223; 252; 253. 

Cabots, the, 65, 67. 
Casdmon, account of, 8-10; in Bede's 
Ecclesiastical History, 14 ; 23 ; 24. 
Cain, 6. 
Calais, 202. 
Calvinists, 164. p 

Cambridge, map 1, Eb; 68; 90; 119; 

135; 186. 
Canterbury, map 1, Ec. 
Canterbury Tales, account of, 44-49; 

51 , printed by Caxton, 64. 
Canute, poem of, 22. 
Carew, Thomas, account of, 132-133 ; 

151- 

Caricature, employed by Dickens, 225. 
Carlyle, Mrs., 230. 

Carlyle, Thomas, 229 ; 230 ; account 

of, 233-235 ; 236 ; 252 ; 254. 
Cash, in Ben Jonson's works, 112. 
Cato, 162-163. 

" Cavalier Poets," 132; 134; 1505151. 

Caxton, William, 54 ; presented to Ed- 
ward IV, illustration, 63 ; introduces 
printing, 64 ; 67. 

Celestial City, in Pilgrim's Progress, 
144, 145. 

Celts, driven west and north by the 

Teutons, 1-2 ; learn Christianity, 5 ; 

literature influenced by, 22-23, 24, 

57,67581. 
Century of Prose, 153-196. 
Century of the Novel, 197-255. 
Channel, 138. 
Chapman, George, no. 
Charlemagne, 16, 17, 32; romance of, 

29, 34- 

Charles I, 117, T22, 124, 132, 138. 

Charles II, returns to England, 124; 
130; 140; feeling towards dissenters, 
144 ; welcomed by Dryden, 146. 

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 33 ; account of, 43- 
50 ; portrait, 49 ; 51 ; imitators of, 52- 
53; 54; 56 ; 66; 68 ; 85 ; 135. 

Chaucer's Century,35-5i. 

Chesterfield, Lord, 176-177. 

Chettle, Henry, writes of Shakespeare, 
98. 



INDEX 



403 



Chevy Chase, 56. 

Childe Harold, 205, 207, 208, 253. 
Christabel, 200. 

Christian, in Pilgrim's Progress, 144, 
145. 

Christmas Eve and Easter Day, 242. 
" Christopher North," 218. See Wilson, 
John. 

Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon, 30. 
Chronicles, become interesting, 28 ; 
34- 

Church, after Alfred's death, 21 ; after 
the Black Death, 36, 37, 51 ; owns 
much land, 55. 

Church, dedication of a Saxon, illustra- 
tion, 20. 

Church of England, separates from 
Church of Rome, 74, 101 ; in contro- 
versy with the Puritans, 95 ; rebuked 
by Milton, 121 ; defended by Dryden, 
149; 163. 

Church Porch, The, 126. 

City of Destruction, in Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress, 144. 

Civil War, 137, 171. 

Clarissa Harlowe, 173. 

Clement, in Ben Jonson's works, 112. 

Clergy, teach by mystery plays, 57, 58, 
67. 

Cloud, The, 210. 

Coffee drinking, 153, 194. 

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 198, 199, 200- 

201; portrait, 201; 208; 214; 223; 

252-253. 

Colonel Newcome. in The Newcomes, 
228. 

Columbus, 65, 67, 69. 
Comedy of Errors, The, 98. 
Commons, House of, 55. See Parlia- 
ment. 

Commonwealth, religious writings dur- 
ing the, 129, 151. 

Cotnpleat Angler, The, 137-138 ; 152. 

Compound words liked by the Teu- 
tons, 7. 

Comus, 120, 121. 

"Conceits," of Herbert, 126; of 
Vaughan, 127; of Donne, 119, 151. 

Confessions of an English Opium- 
Eater, 218, 253. 

Constantinople,~captured by the Turks, 
68. 

Continent of Europe, 134, 180, 208. 
Copernicus, 69. 

Corinna's Going a-M ay ing, 135-136. 
Correctness. See Form. 
Corsair, The, 209. 

Cotter's Saturday Night, The, 193-194, 
196. 



Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia. See 

Arcadia. 
Coventry, map 1, Db. 
Cowper, William, account of, 187-189; 

194; 196. 
Craigenputtock, map 1, Ca ; 234. 
Cranford, 249. 

Crashaw, Richard, 124 ; account of, 

126-127 ; 150 ; 151. 
Crecy, 36. 

Criticism, in Queen Anne's time, 171, 
195- 

Cromwell, Oliver, 122 ; Milton writes 
in his honor, 123 ; eulogized by Dry- 
den, 146. 

Cross, Mary Ann Evans. See " George 

Eliot." 
Crossing the Bar, 247. 
Crusades, 27, 29, 34, 35, 36. 
Cry of the Children, The, 239-240. 
Curse of Kehama, The, 200. 
Cycles, of mystery plays, 58, 59. 
Cymbeline, [03. 

Cynewulf, account of, 10-12 ; 23 ; 24. 

Da Gama, Vasco, 65, 67. 
Damascus, 250. 

Danes, in Beowulf, 3 ; invade North- 

umbria, 16, 17 ; 19 ; 20 ; 21 ; 24. 
Dante, 44. 

Darwin, Charles, 248. 
David Copperfield, 225. 
Davidson, Betty, 189. 
Davis's Straits, 184. 
Dead Sea, 38. 

Decadence of Elizabethan drama, 115- 
n6, 151. 

Decay of Beggars hi the Metropolis, 
217. 

Delectable Mountains, in Pilgri?n's 

Progress, 144. 
Delights of the Muses, 126. 
Denmark, 3. 

Deor's Lameitt, 7, 8, 23. 
De Quincey, Thomas, 203, 214 ; ac- 
count of, 217-221 ; portrait, 219; 223 ; 

252 ; 253. 

Deserted Village, The, 182, 187. 
Destruction, the City of, in Pilgrim's 

Progress, 144. 
Deucalion, 237. 

Devotional books, in thirteenth century, 
28. 

Defence of the English People, 122, 
140. 

Defoe', Daniel, 163 ; account of, 167- 

171; portrait, 169 ; 194; 195; 222. 
Dekker, Thomas, no. 
Dickens, Charles, account of, 223-226 ; 



404 



INDEX 



portrait, 224 ; Thackeray compared 
with, 226-227 ; 228 ; 229 ; 252 ; 254. 
Dictionary, Johnson's, 175, 176-177, 

183, 195- 
Disdain Returned, 133. 
Disraeli, Benjamin, 250. 
Dissertation on Roast Pig, A, 217. 
Diverting History of John Gilpin, The, 

188. 

Don Juan, 209. 

Donne, John, account of, 117-119; 

Walton's Life of, 137 ; 150; 151 ; 211. 
Doubting Castle, in Pilgrim 's Progress, 

144. 

Douglas, in the ballads, 204. 
Downright, in Ben Jonson's works, 112, 
114. 

Drama, early Elizabethan, 82 ; later 
Elizabethan, 88, 101 ; need of a 
standard verse, 89, 101 ; the classic, 
in ; decadence of the Elizabethan. 
115-116; 151; of Greeks imitated by 
Milton, 142 ; of the Restoration, 146- 
147; 152; 250. 

Dream Children, 217. 

Dream of Fair Women, A, 244. 

Dream of the Rood, The, 11, 12, 23. 

Dryden, John, account of, 146-150; 
151; 152; 153; 171. 

Dublin, 163. 

Dumfries, map 1, Ca ; 192. 
Dunciad, The, 157-158. 
Dunstan, 21, 24. 

Dutch, Dryden writes on war with, T47. 

Early English Period, 1-24. 

Early English poetry, 1-12 ; form of, 6 ; 

as a whole, 12 ; 23 ; 24. 
Earthly Paradise, The, 248. 
East India House, 214, 216. 
Ecclesiastical History, 14, 18, 19, 24. 
Ecclesiastical Polity, 95, 1 02. 
Eden, 141. 

Edinburgh, map 1, Ca ; 180; 190; 191; 

203 ; 204 ; 220. 
Edinburgh Review, 208, 221, 231, 253. 
Edinburgh, University of, 233. 
Edward II, Marlowe's, 90, 91. 
Edward V, More's Life of, 72. 
Edward VI, 78. 

Elegy in a Country Churchyard, 186, 

196. 
Elixir, 125. 

Elizabeth, Queen, 71, 79, 82, 86, 91, 92 ; 
at Kenilworth, 96 ; England during 
reign of, 80 ; 101 ; death of, 103 ; 106 ; 
117. 

Elizabeth, granddaughter of Shake- 
speare, 106. 



Elizabethan Age, literary debt to Skel- 
ton, 71 ; England during, 80 ; literary 
boldness, 81 ; early drama of, 82 ; in- 
spiration lingers, 103; vanishes, 150; 
romances of, 171. 

Ely, map 1, Eb ; 22. 

Emma, 222. 

Emmanuel's Land, in Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress, 144. 

Endymion, 213, 253. 

England, named from the Angles, 2 ; 
Bede's history of, 14 ; Goldsmith's, 
180 ; Hume's, 185 ; Macaulay's, 232, 
254 ; at the death of Alfred, 20 ; con- 
quered by William, 23, 25 ; visited by 
the Black Death, 36, 40 ; feudal 
system in, 35 ; increases in strength, 
80, 81, 101. 

England' 's Helicon, 88. 

English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, 
208. 

E?tglish Humourists, 228. 

English language, Old English com- 
pared with modern English, 6 ; used 
by Bede, 15 ; of the ninth century, 18 ; 
as used by Alfred, 18, 19 ; as used by 
Chaucer, 50 ; struggle between French 
and t English, 26 ; after the Conquest, 
27 ; fears of its disappearance, 109. 

Enoch Arden, 247, 255. 

Ensham, 21. 

Epic, growth of, 3 ; Milton's proposed 
British, 140; ancient epics, 69. 

Essay of Dramatic Poesy, 149. 

Essay on Criticism, 155. 

Essay on Man, 158. 

Essay on Milton, 231, 232, 254. 

Essay on Projects, 168. 

Essays, Bacon's, 107-108. 

Essays of Elia, 216, 253. 

Ethelwulf, 20. 

Euphues, 82, 86, 101. 

Euphuism, 83 ; used by Shakespeare, 98. 

Europe, ancient MSS. carried through- 
out, 68 ; aroused by Renaissance and 
discoveries, 69. 

Eve, 36, 141. 

Eve of St. Agnes, 213. 

Eve of St. John, 204. 

Every Man in His Humour, no. 

Everyman, 62, 63 ; scene from, illustra- 
tion, 61 ; 67. 

Excalibur, in Malory, 54. 

Exeter, map 1, Cc, 8. 

Exeter Book, 8, 24. 

Faerie Queene, read to Raleigh, 92 ; 
symbolism of, 93 ; beauties of, 94 ; 
98} 102. 



INDEX 



405 



Faithful, in Pilgrim'' s Progress, 145. 
" Father of English Poetry," 43, 48. 
Faustus, the Tragical History of Dr., 
90. 

Fergusson, Robert, 190. 

Ferrex and Porrex, 79. See Gorboduc. 

Feudal system, 35. 

Fielding, Henry, 173, 194, 195,221,227. 
First English comedy, 78, IOI. 
First English tragedy, 79, IOI. 
First Folio, 115. 
First poet laureate, 114. 
First printed English book, 64. 
First real novel, 172, 195. 
Fletcher, John. See Beaumont and 
Fletcher. 

Flight of a Tartar Tribe, The, 220. 
Florence, 44. 
Ford, John, no. 

Form, attention to, needed by English 
literature, 82, 101 ; introduced by 
Wyatt and Surrey, 74, 75 ; shown by 
Lyly, Spenser, and Sidney, 82, 101 ; 
influence of French care for, 146-147, 
152 ; Pope's care for, 158. 

Forsaken Merman, The, 238. 

Foure P's, The, 77. 

Four Georges, The, 228. 

France, borrows Alcuin, 16 ; sends 
teachers to England, 18 ; invaded by 
Normans, 25 ; 30 ; 43 ; Reign of 
Terror in, 184 ; Revolution in, affects 
literature, 186 ; 197-198. 

Eraser's Magazine, 226, 234. 

Frederick II, Carlyle's History of the 
Life and Times of, 235. 

Freeman, Edward Augustus, 248. 

" Free verse," 75. See blank verse. 

French, learned by the English, 26 ; 
History of the Kings of Britain trans- 
lated into, 30 ; M r andeville' ' s Travels 
written in, 38 : used by Chaucer, 43, 
49 ; models followed by the English, 
68, 146-147, 152; 155- 

French Revolution, Burke's Reflections 
on the, 184. 

French Revolution, Carlyle's History 
of the, 234. 

Froude, James Anthony, 248. 

Fuller, Thomas, 129-130, 151, 205. 

Fuller's Worthies, 130. 

Galahad, 245. 

Gaskell, Elizabeth C leghorn, 249. 
Gazetteer, position of, 160. 
Genesis, 141. 

Geoffrey of Monmouth, 29, 34. 
George I, 163. 
George IV, 206. 



"George Eliot," account of , 228-230 ; 
252; 254. 

German Ocean, 8. 

Germany, early home of the Teutons, 1 ; 

23 ; printing in, 64 ; effect of the 

Renaissance upon, 69, 73 ; refuge of 

Tyndale, 73 ; 184 ; 199. 
Giant Despair, in Pilgrim's Progress, 

144. 

Gibbon, Edward, 184 ; account of, 185 ; 

194; 195- 

Girondists, 197. 

Glasgow, map 1, Ba; University of, 
2 35- 

Glastonbury, map 1, Cc ; 21. 

Globe Theatre, 105. 

Goldsmith, Oliver, account of, 179-183 ; 

portrait, 181 ; 187 ; Cowper compared 

with, 188 ; 194 ; 195 ; 196. 
Good-Natured Man, The, 182. 
Goody Two Shoes, 180. 
Gorboduc, 79 ; compared with Ralph 

Roister Doister, 80 ; 82 ; IOI. 
Gospel of St. John, Bede's translation . 

of, 15, 19, 24. 
Gospels, in the "authorized version," 

109. 

Grail. See Holy Grail. 

Gray's Elegy, 186, 187, 196. 

Gray, Thomas, account of, 186-187; 
194; ig6. 

Great Fire of London, 147. 

Great Hoggarty Diamond, The, 226. 

Greek, dances loved by Herrick, 135 ; 
drama and Samson Agonistes, 142 ; 
language studied by Shakespeare, 96 ; 
literature known to Surrey and 
Wyatt, 74 ; mythology, 212 ; restraint 
of Arnold, 238-239, 255. 

Greeks, flee to Italy, 68 ; ancient writ- 
ings of, 68 ; modern, helped by Byron, 
210, 253. 

Green, John Richard, 248. 

Grendel, in Beowulf, 3, 4, 5. 

Greville, Fulke, 92. 

Guardian, The, 162, 195. 

Gulliver's Travels, 165-166 ; 195. 

Hallam, Arthur Henry, 245. 

Hamlet, 103. 

Handsome Nell, 189. 

Harry Bailey, in Canterbury Tales, 45. 

Hastings, Warren, 183-184, 232. 

Hathaway, Anne, 96. 

Hebrides, 179. 

Henry VIII, 70-76, 78, IOI, passim. 
Henry Esmond, 228. 
Herbert, George, account of, 124-126; 
portrait of, 125 ; model of Vaughan, 



406 



INDEX 



128; Walton's Life of, 137; 138; 

150; 151. 

Heroes and Hero-Worship, 235. 
Herrick, Robert, 132 ; account of, 134- 

137; 151 ; 152. 
Hesperides, The, 135-136. 
Hester, 216. 

Heywood, John, 77, 78, IOO, 101. 
Hilda, 9. 

Hind and the Panther, The, 149. 
History of America, Robertson's, 184. 
History of England, Goldsmith's, 180. 
History of England, Hume's, 185. 
History of England, Macaulay's, 232, 
254. 

History of Scotland during the Reigns 

of Queen Mary and James the Sixth, 

Robertson's, 184. 
History of the Decline and Fall of the 

Roman Empire, Gibbon's, 185. 
History of the French Revolution, 

Carlyle's, 234. 
History of the Kings of Britain, 29. 
History of Life and Times of Frederick 

II, Carlyle's, 235, 254. 
History of the World, 106 ; progress of, 

250. 

Holy and Profane State, The, 129. 
Holy Grail, 30. 
Holy Land, 35. 

Holy Living and Holy Dying, 1 30. 
Homer, Pope compared with, 156. 
Homilies, 21, 24. 

Hooker, Richard, account of, 95 ; IOO ; 

102. 
Hottentot, 176. 
Hours of Idleness, 208. 
House of the Interpreter, in Pilgrim's 

Progress, 144. 
Hrothgar, in Beowulf, 3, 4. 
Hudibras, 139-140; 152. 
Hudson's Bay, 184. 
Humber River, map 1, DEb; 17. 
Hume, David, 184, 194, 195. 
Hundred Years' War, 36, 50, 54, 66. 
Hunt, Leigh, 214. 
Huxley, Thomas, 248. 
Hymn on the Morning of Christ's 

Nativity, 1 19-120. 
Hymns, Addison's, 163 ; Cowper's, 188. 

Idylls of the King, 246, 255. 
Ignorance, in Pilgrim's Progress, 145. 
Iliad, translated by Pope, 156. 
II Penseroso, 120. 
India, 180, 184, 226, 232. 
hi Memoriam, 245, 255. 
Inquisition, Spanish, 134. 
Instauratio Magna, 108-109. 



Interpreter, the, in Pilgrim's Progress, 
144. 

Interludes, 76, 77, 101. 

Ireland, 14; famous schools in, 22; 
Spenser in, 91 ; 92 ; Addison in, 160. 

Italy, resort of the English clergy, 37; 
visited by Chaucer, 43 ; literature of, 
compared with that of England, 43, 
44, 68 ; sought by Greek scholars, 68 ; 
effect of the Renaissance upon, 69 ; 
literature of, known to Surrey and 
Wyatt, 74 ; home of blank verse, 80 ; 
tales and romances of, brought to 
England, 81 ; 213 ; 240. 

Ivanhoe, 228, 230. 

Jack, in The Tale of a Tub, 163. 
Jamaica, 190. 

James I, of England, 92, 103 ; imprisons 
Raleigh, 106 ; 108 ; praised in 
masques, 113; his court, 116; 117; 

124. 

James I, of Scotland, 52, 53, 66. 

Jarrow, map 1, Da; 12, 13. 

Jeffrey, Francis, 208, 221, 253. 

Jew of Malta, The, 90. 

John Gilpin, 188. 

John of Trevisa, 26. 

Johnson, Samuel, account of, 175-179; 

portrait, 175; 180; 181; 183; 194; 

195; 2 32. 

Jonson, Ben, 106; account of , 110-116; 

portrait, 11 1 ; criticises Donne, 118; 

influence of, 119 ; 150; 151 ; 153. 
Joseph Andrews, 227. 
Juan Fernandez, 169. 
Jutes, 1. 
Jutland, 1, 23. 

Journal of the Plague Year, 170. 
Journey to the Hebrides, 179. 

Keats, John, 202, 203, 210, 211 ; account 
of, 212-214; portrait, 212 ; 2185223; 
252; 253. 

Kenilworth, map 1, Db ; 96 ; 207. 

Kildare, 13. 

King Horn, 30-31. 

" King James Version." See Bible. 

King Lear, 103. 

" King Monmouth," 167. 

Kings of Britain, 29. 

King's Quair, The, 53. 

" Kinsey," 218. 

Knighthood, decreases in value, 55, 67. 
Kno'well, in Ben Jonson's Works, 112. 
Kubla Khan, 200. 

Lady Clara Vere de Vere, 244. 
Lady Jane Grey, 130. 



INDEX 



407 



"Lady of Christ's College," 119. 
Lady to Her Inconstant Servant, The, 
132. 

Lake Country, 197, 199, 202, 214, 218. 
" Lake Poets," 197, 203, 252. 
" Lake School," 197. 
L' Allegro, 120. 

Lamb, Charles, 110; 203; account of, 
214-217; portrait, 215; 218; 223; 
252 ; 253 ; 255. 

Lamb, Mary, 214, 216. 

Lamia, 213. 

Langland, William, account of, 39-41 ; 

43 ; 50. 

Language. See English language. 

Lasswade,.22o. 

Last Days of Pompeii, 249. 

Latin, language of scholars and the 
church, 15 ; priests' ignorance of, 17; 
compared with English, 18 ; used by 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, 29 ; aban- 
doned by Wyclif, 42 ; literature 
known to Surrey and Wyatt, 74 ; 
Shakespeare's knowledge of, 96 ; ex- 
pected permanence of, 109. 

Launcelot, 29, 30, 245 ; and a hermit, 
illustration, 29. 

Laureate, Jonson, 114; Southey, 200; 
Wordsworth, 203 ; Tennyson, 245, 
246 ; Tennyson's laureate poems, 246, 
255- 

Lay of the Last Minstrel, The, 205, 

208, 253. 
Layamon, 30, 34. 
Lays of Ancient Rome, 232. 
Letters from a Citizen of the World, 

180. 
Leyden, 180. 

Lichfield, map 1, Db ; 175. 
Lilliput, in Gtdliver's Travels, 165, 166. 
Litany, Herrick's, 136. 
Literary Club, 178-182, passim. 
" Literary Dictator of England " (John- 
son), 178. 

Little Nell, in Dickens's works, 224- 
225. 

Lives of saints, 21, 23, 24. 
Lives of the Poets, 175, 179, 195. 
Lives, Walton's, 137. 
Locksley Hall, 244. 

London, map 1, Ec ; 95, 96, 97, 98, 

105, 110; Great Fire of, 147; 159; 

161; 173; 176; 179; 180; 218; 

226 ; 229 ; 235. 
London Magazine, 218. 
Lost Leader, The, 242. 
Lotus-Eaters, The, 244. 
Lovelace, Richard, 132, 133; account 

of, 134; 151. 



Love's Labour 'j Lost, 98. 
Lticrece, 98. 

Ludlow Castle, map 1, Cb; 12T. 

Lutherans, 163. 

Lycidas, 120, 121. 

Lyell, Sir Charles, 248. 

Lyly, John, account of, 82-83; 89; 

IOO ; IOI. 
Lyrical Ballads, 198-199. 
Lyrics, after the Conquest, 31-32, 34 ; 

of the dramatists, 90, IOI, 102 ; of 

Burns, 92 ; progress of lyric poetry, 

250. See Hymns. 
Lytton, Edward Bulwer, 249. 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington, account, 
230-233 ; portrait, 231 ; 248 ; 252 ; 

254-. 

Magellan, 69. 

Maggie, in The Mill on the Floss, 229, 
230. 

Malory, Sir Thomas, 53, 54, 64, 66, 245. 
Mandeville, Sir John, account of, 37- 

39 ; on his voyage, illustration, 38 ; 

SO- 

March, Earl of, 26. 

Marlborough, Duke of, 159. 

Marlowe, Christopher, account of, 90- 

91 ; 95 ; 100 ; 102. 
Marmion, 205, 208, 253. 
Martin, in The Tale of a Tub, 163. 
Mary Queen of Scots, 79, 91. 
Mary. See William and Mary. 
Masque of Oberon, 113. 
Masques, account of, 76-77 ; IOI ; of 

Jonson, 113. 
May Queen, The, 244. 
Men and Women, 242. 
Merchant of Venice, The, 99, 100. 
Mermaid Inn, 105. 

Metre, Old English, 5, 7 ; of ballads, 
57, 67 ; of early Elizabethan drama, 
82 ; need of a standard, 89, IOI ; 
blank verse triumphs, 90, 102 ; 5- 
beat line, 171; influence of Pope's, 
171, 195- 

" Michael Angelo Titmarsh " (Thack- 
eray), 226. 
Middle Ages, 212. 
Middlemarch, 229. 

Midland dialect, employed by Chaucer, 
5°> Sh 

Midsummer Night' 's Dream, A, 98. 

Mill on the Floss, The, 229. 

Milton, John, account of (before 1660), 
119-123; after 1660, 123-124; por- 
trait, 119; Herbert compared with, 
125 ; later years of, 140-143 ; sonnet 
on his blindness, 142 ; Bunyan com- 



405 



ixrzx 



pared with, 145. 146: Dryden com- 
pared with. 140-1 ;c: 15a- 

Minstreis. a band of." illustration. 

MinstrFs- ivr;:. : 5.- The, 

205. 

Miracle plays, ri. re. f. See Myste- 
ries. 

Miscellanies, the KKarahftthan, 88, 101. 

See r.-~s~s Mzs.-eFa-.?. 
Missalonghi. 21a. 

Missionaries, from Rome. 6: from Ire- 
land, 8; BanmZf changed by the 
teachings of. a. 24. 

M.\:V^z Fa:nZe~s. a :a. 

Msa'esz F'.-fcsj:. A~ 105. 

Mark at work, illustration. 15. 

Monks. i:s^^rei:er:ce of the. 21. 

M:ntiSy Magazine. 224. 

M.'raS Essays. Pope's. 15S. 

Moralities, account of. ri-ct : ro : a,- : 
76: $2: 101 : 112. 

More. Sir Thomas, account of. 71-74 ; 
portrait. -2 : — : ICC . ICI. 

Morris. William. a^>. 

Mcrte i" Arthur. 54 : printed by Caxton. 
r_t : :c : as treated bv Tennvson. 145. 

Moses, in The f leer 0/ Wahgield, 
auu.. 

M:sle~s. ;a. 

Mr. M:au~ber. :n Pickens's ^orks. at:. 
Mr. Mims ana zis C.-usin. aout, 
Mu Ki ' a F u '.- e~is. z : r 
Jfu~S*- C.-nsiae^ed as One :;F:e Fin 

F.rzs. aac. 
Music, in the Elizabethan days, 89. 
Mjstery plays, account of. >7-6i : 76: 

illustration. ;S : a:: 66": "a : Sa : 

IOI. See Miracle piays. 

Katnre, loved by the Norman-English. 
31 : by Milton, 120 : by Surrey. 120 : 
bv Vaughan. laS : 'ay Taylor. 1 ;r : in 
the eighteenth century. 1S6 : inrer- 
preted by Wordsworth, 202-203. 
Neiscn, Souther 5 ^ Life mf, 200. 
Netherlands. ::"a 
Xevcames, The. 228. 
Newman. John Henry, 248 ; portrait, 

249. 
N e~ -.ace ::: 
■ N ew poet ■ (Spenser), 85. 
Nem Testament. Tyndak's translation | 

of. 7t. 101. 
New World, 81. 92. 
Xij-'-t Fieee. 1^6. 
Nitas, 187. 

Xu-.~ers. 13:. 15a. it". 
• nth . i5c. 



No: 
Not 
No: 
No: 

Nor 
No: 
No 



-. 34. 5$. o6\ 

iod. 25-34. 

25, »7, aS, 29. 
toi. 

14, 16. 1 - : Chris- 



•y ot the. 107-255 : re- 
•f :he. 1-1-i-a : f.rst real 
c 95- 

sum, 100. 



S.zs a J- C>«. 213. 

Ode :: z'ze West Wind, 211. 

Odyssey, translated by Pope, 156. 
Old English compared with modern 

O.d 'Pd^-da* Eases. The. 216. 

Old Testament, translated by Tyndak, 

Oliier Tudst.224. 

Olnev. ma/ 1. Pb : iS5. 

:■: Laze Jdassae-e :~: Fierr.er.:. 12;. 

C-n Fie Szud* z'Teezn. 2 to. 

F: F:e S:.. a .";»;.' zk z Feauz^uL i5;. 

Origin c^S/es:es. 24S. 

Orm, 28. 

C'^.ulum. 25. :a. 34. 

Orosius, iS. 

Oxford, ma/ 1, Dc : University of, 26, 
a>. 95. ia>. a:o. 21S. 236. 

Pacific, visited bv English sailors, 81. 
Padua. 1S0. 

Fampnlets :: M:lt';n. 151 : 



N:d 3:lds=i:h\ 

• 1 



:; a.aalani. 



Far a. 

Fa'-'a. 
Fara, 
Pars. 
Faakh 



Fai 
Fa: 



141-143, 15:. 

En zees. The. 55. 
ned. 142. 

mits to Henry VI n. 73 : 



INDEX 



Patronage, literary, ended by Jobaaoa, 

176-177. 195. 
Peasants' Revolt, -7. 50. 
Pembroke, Countess of, 86. 
Pen, Age of the. 247-2: :. 
People's Century. 52-67. 
Percy, Bishop Thomas. :«- 2:4 
Percy's Reliques, 187. r ;€ ; : ± 
Peridiocals. the beginning ::. 1-1. 195. 
Peter, in The Tale of a Tub, 163. 
Peter Bell, 203. 
Petrarch, 44. 
Phenix 1 Nest, The, 88. 
Phyllyp Sparo-we, 71. 
Picaresque stories of Defoe. 17/1. 
Pickwick Papers, The. 2=4 
/>r*f of Hamelin, The, 242. 

Piers Plowman, Vision :f, 59-41. 50. 
Pilgrimages in Chaucer's time, 44- 
Pilgrim's Progress. The, 143, 144-14^ 

:5c 132 :;: 
Pip pa Passes, 241. 

Plague Year, Defoe's Journal of the, 
171. 

Plautus, comedies of, 78. 

Pliable, in Pimm's Progress, 143. » 

Poems, Cfc^fjr Lyrical, 244. 

Poets' Corner. ulnstra~:n. 

Poland, 86. 

Pope, Alexander, account of, 153-158; 
portrait, 1 54 ; love for Swift, 166 : 
171 : influence upon literature, 171 ; 
Goldsmith compared with. 182 : 
Popes ideas of nature, 187, 189; 
194-195:^.0 

Portia, in The 2>Iirc/iant of V entice, 
100. 

Powell. Mar---. 

Prague, 86. 

Przterita, 23- . 

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, Zj.1 
■ Prewdence," Herrkk's maid, 135. 
Pride and Prejudice, 22.2, 
Princess, The, 245. 
Principles of Geology, 248. 



95 ; Century of, 153-196; of eaadj 
periodicals, 171 ; progress of, 250. 
Prospice : ixz, zy.. 

Psaims, in the u a u iltwiwd . weakm," 

lag. 

Pulley, The, 126, 
Punchy 226. 
r"\Lr-.T,an, 




*53» 
133. 138 



195 



Ra&U Bern Esrm, 242. 
-aleigr.. 5:r '.Yil-er. as a tdMLnrer. 

visits Spenser, 92; .tin, unit of, iol 

"5*. 

Rzlsz Z -\ . ::;mnare 

wife G*rtadae,&-, 101 

Ramsay. Allan. : :o 

^/<f a/afc* Z^efc, Tie, 155-156, 157. 



INDEX 



used by Chaucer, 51; used by the 

dramatists, 89. 
Rhyme of the Duchess May, 240. 
" Rhyme royal," 53. 
Richard III, More's Life of, 72. 
Richardson, Samuel, account of, 172- 

173; portrait, 172; Goldsmith reads 

proof for, 180; ig4; 195; 221. 
Riddles, of Cynewulf, 11. 
" Rime-giver," 7. 

Rime of the Ancient Mariner, 198-199, 
252. 

Ring and the Book, The, 242, 255. 
River of Death, in Pilgrim's Progress, 
144. 

Robertson, William, account of, 184 ; 

185 ; 194 ; igs. 
Robin Hood ballads, 32-33, 34, 204. 
Robinson Crusoe, 167 ; account of, 169- 

170; 171 ; 195. 
Roderick Random, 174, 195. 
Roman Catholic Church. See Church 

of Rome. 

Roman Empire, Gibbon's History of 
the Decline and Fall of the, 185. 

Romances, 29-31, 34. 

Romans, 14 ; writings of, 68 ; in plays 
of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, 112. 

Romantic revival, 185-186, 196. 

Rome, missionaries from, 6 ; visited by 
abbot of Jarrow, 13 ; Bede sends to, 
14; visited by Alfred, 17, 42; plays 
of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson laid 
in, 112 ; 211 ; 212. 

Romeo and fuliet, 100. 

Romola, 229. 

Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 248. 
Round Table, 245. 
Rowena, in Ivanhoe, 230. 
Royalists, 122, 134 ; Century of Puri- 
tans and, 103-152. 
Rugby, map 1, Db; 238. 
Rugby Chapel, 239. 
Runes, 10. 

Ruskin, John, 230 ; account of, 235- 
238 ; Arnold compared with, 238 ; 
252; 253; 254. 

Rymenhild, in King Horn, 31. 

Sackville, Thomas, 79, IOO, 101. 
Sad Shepherd, The, 113. 
Saint Cecilia's Day, 149. 
St. Patrick's Cathedral, 164. 
St. Paul's, 117. 

Saints' Everlasting Rest, The, 131. 

Samson Agonistes, 142. 

Saracens, in King Horn, 30, 31. 

Sartor Resartus, 234, 235. 

Satan, in the homilies, 21 ; in the mys- 



tery plays, 59, 60 ; in the moralities, 
62, 64 ; in Paradise Lost, 141. 

Satire, of Dryden, 148; of Pope, 157- 
158; of Swift, 163-164, 165; of 
Defoe, 167. 

Saxon, church, dedication of, illustra- 
tion, 20 ; words used by Ruskin, 237. 

Saxons, 1. 

Scenes from Clerical Life, 229. 
School, Bede's. 12 ; schools in Ireland, 

22. 
Scop, 2-3. 

Scotch, Johnson's prejudice against, 
176. 

Scotland, 52 ; home of the ballads, 57 ; 
oats in, 176 ; visited by Johnson, 179 ; 
Robertson's History of, 184; love of 
nature in poets of, 186; 189; 190; 
195. 

Scott, Sir Walter, 202 ; portrait, 204 ; 
account of, 203-207 ; 208 ; 214 ; 222 ; 
223 ; 230 ; " George Eliot " compared 
with, 230 ; 252 ; 253. 

Selkirk, Alexander, 169. 

Seneca, read in England, 79. 

Sentimental four ney, The, 174-175. 

Sequence of sonnets, 94. 

Sesame and Lilies, 237. 

Shakespeare, John, 95-96. 

Shakespeare, William, 79; Marlowe 
compared with, 92 ; account of, 95- 
100 ; portrait, 99 ; 1 02 ; in the seven- 
teenth century, 103-106, 110; aids 
Ben Jonson, 111 ; contrasted with 
Ben Jonson, m, 112; contrasted 
with Beaumont and Fletcher, 114; 
plays collected and printed, 115; 
" wit-combats " of, 115 ; Dryden com- 
pared with, 148; 150; 151; Pope 
compared with, 155 ; works edited by 
Johnson, 179; Thackeray compared 
with, 227 ; 228 ; 250 ; 253. 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 202, 203 ; ac- 
count of, 210-212; 2145-218; 223; 
252 ; 253. 

Shepherd's Calendar, The, 84, 85, 101. 
Sherwood, map 1, Db ; 32. 
She Stoops to Conquer, 182-183. 
Short History of the English People, 

Green's, 248. 
Shortest Way with Dissenters, The, 

167. 
Shottery, 96. 

Shylock, in The Merchant of Venice, 
100. 

Sidney, Sir Philip, 82, 84 ; account of, 
86-88 ; portrait, 87 ; mourning for, 
92,97; sonnets, 94 ; IOO; 101. 

Silas Mar ner, 229, 230. 



INDEX 



411 



Silex Scintillans, 127. 
Sir Charles Grandison, 173. 
Sir Patrick Spens, 204. 
Sir Roger de Coverley, in the Spectator, 
162, 195. 

Skelton, John, account of, 70-71 ; 76 ; 
100; 101. 

Sketches by Boz, 224. 

Slough of Despond, in Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress, 144. 

Smollett, Tobias George, account of, 

i73- l 74; 194; !95; 221. 

Songs of the dramatists, 88-89, 102; 
of Burns, 192, 193, 196. See Lyrics. 

Sonnet, introduced by Wyatt and 
Surrey, 75; decade of, 94, 102; Sid- 
ney's, 94; 101 ; Shakespeare's, 103- 
104; 151; Milton's, 123. 

Sonnets from the Portugtiese, 241. 

South America, 69. 

Southey, Robert, 197; account of, 199- 

200 ; 203 ; 214; 223 ; 252. 
Southward, 44. 
Spain, 81, 134. 

Specimens of Dramatic Poets Contem- 
porary with Shakespeare, 216. 

Spectator, The, 162, 171, 195. 

Speech on Conciliation with America, 
183, 184. 

Spenser, Edmund, account of, 82-86 ; 
in Ireland, 91 ; 92 ; plan of the Faerie 
Qiceene, 93-94 ; sonnets, 94 ; 98 ; 
100; 101 ; 212; Ruskin compared 
with, 237. 

Spezzia, Bay of, 211. 

Squire, the, in Canterbury Tales, illus- 
tration, 47. 

Steele, Sir Richard, Defoe compared 
with, 167; Johnson compared with, 
177. See Addison and Steele. 

"Stella," 166-167. 

Steps to the Altar, 126. 

Sterne, Laurence, account of, 174-175 ; 

194; 195- 

Stones of Venice, 236. 

Stratford, map 1, Db ; 95; 96 ; 105; 

Shakespeare returns to, 106; 110; 

acting forbidden in, 116. 
Suckling, Sir John, 132 ; account of, 

i33~ I 34; I5 1 - 

Superannuated Man, The, 217. 

Surrey, Earl of, account of, 74-76 ; 82 ; 
100; 101 ; treatment of nature com- 
pared with Milton's, 120. See Wyatt. 

Susquehanna, 198, 200. 

Sweden, 3, 134. 

Swift, Jonathan, 160; account of, 163- 
167; portrait, 165; Defoe compared 
with, 167; 194; 195. 



Swinburne, Algernon Charles, 248. 
Syr Bedwere, in Malory's works, 54. 

Tabard Inn, 44. 

Tale of a Tub, The, 163-164. 

Tales from Shakespeare, 216, 253. 

Tamburlaine, 90-91. 

Tarn O 'Shanter, 191, 193, ig6. 

Task, The, 188. 

Tatler, The, 160-161, 162, 171, 195. 
Taylor, Jeremy, account of, 130-131; 

Tempest, The, 103. 

Temple, Sir John, 163, 164, 166. 

Temple, The, 125-126. 

Tennyson, Alfred, 239; account of, 

2 43- 2 47; portrait, 243; 250; 252; 

255. 

Teutons, 1-3, 6, 7 ; compared with 

Celts, 22, 23 ; 25 ; 40. 
Thackeray, William Makepeace, 223 ; 

account of, 226-228 ; portrait, 227 ; 

252 ; 254- 

Thalaba, 200. 

Thames, map 1, DEc ; 157. 

Thanet, Christianity preached on, 6. 

Thanksgiving, A, 135. 

Theatre, first, 82; Globe, 105. 

Theatres, closed, 11 5-1 16, 151 ; flung 
open, 146, 152 ; abandoned to care- 
less and immoral, 117, 151. 

Thor, 1. 

Tintern Abbey, 199. 
To Althea, 134. 
To a Skylark, 211. 
Tom fanes, 173. 
Tories, 160, 163. 

TotteVs Miscellany, 75, IOO, 101, 132. 

Tracy, Herrick's dog, 135. 

Translations, Bede's Gospel of St. fohn, 
15, 24 ; Alfred's, 18, 19, 24 ; Wace's 
History of the Kings of Britain, 29- 
30 ; French Romances into English, 
30, 33 ; Mandeville's Travels, 38 ; 
Wyclii's Bible, 73 ; Surrey's JEneid, 
75 ; inspired by the Renaissance, 
81 ; Dryden's sEneid, 149, 171 ; 
Pope's Iliad and Odyssey, 156; 
"George Eliot's," 229; Carlyle's, 
233- 

Traveller, The, 180-18 1. 
Tribe of Ben, 114. 
Tristram Shandy, 174, 195. 
Troy, 29, 34, 156. 

Turks capture Constantinople, 68 ; the 

Greeks rise against, 210, 253. 
Turner, William, 236. 
Twickenham, map 1, Dc ; 157. 
Tyndale, William, 73-74, IOO, 101. 



412 



INDEX 



Tyndall, John, 248. 

Tyne, River, map 1, CDa; 17. 

Udall, Nicholas, 78, 100, 101. 
Unities, classic, 111, 114. 
Universities, their weakness discovered 

by Bacon, 107. See Cambridge and 

Oxford. 
" University wits," 90. 
Unto This Last, 236. 
Uriah Heep, in Dickens's works, 225. 
Utopia, 72-73. 

Valhalla, 1. 
Valkyries, 1. 

Valley of Humiliation, in Pilgrim's 
Progress, 144. 

Valley of the Shadow of Death, in Pil- 
grim's Progress, 144. 

Vanity Fair, 144, 227. 

Vassar, Matthew, 168. 

Vaughan, Henry, 124, 126; account of, 
127-129; 150; 151. 

Venus and Adonis, 98. 

Venus de Medici, 202. 

Vercelli Book, 8, 24. 

Vicar of Wakefield, The, 180, 181, 224. 

Vice, the, 61, 77. 

Victorian Age, the, 223, 226, 243, 255. 
Vision of Piers Plowman, 39-41, 43- 
50. 

Wace, 29-30, 34. 
Waerferth, 18, 19. 
Wales, 2i 8. 

Walsh, William, advises Pope, 154-155. 
Walton, Izaak, account of, 137-138, 

151; 152. 

War of the Roses, 54, 66. 
Warwickshire, map 1, Db; 228. 

Waverley, 206, 222, 253. 

We Are Seven, 199. 
Webster, John, no. 



Wellbred, in Ben Jonson's works, 112, 
114. 

Welsh, Jane. See Mrs. Carlyle. 
Westminster, 65. 
Westminster Abbey, 183. 
Westminster Review, 229. 
Weston, 188. 
West Saxons, 21. 

Whigs, pension Addison, 158; 159; 

160; 163. 
Whitby, map 1, Da; 8. 
Whitby Abbey, illustration, 9. 
"Wicked wasp of Twickenham" 

(Pope), 157, 166. 
Widsith, 7, 23, 250. 
Wife of Bath, in Canterbury Tales, 

illustration, 46. 
William and Mary, 167. 
William the Conqueror, 23. 
" Will's " coffee house, 153. 
Wilson, John, 218, 254. 
Winchester, map 1, Dc: 19. 
Winter's Tale, The, 103. 
Wishes to His {Supposed) Mistress, 126. 
Witches and Other Night Fears, 217. 
"Wit-combats" between Shakespeare 

and Jonson, 115. 
Wolsey, Cardinal, 70. 
Worcester, map 1, Cb; 18. 
Wordsworth, Dorothy, 198. 
Wordsworth, William, account of, 197- 

199, 202-203; portrait, 197; 207; 

208; 214; 218; 223; 250; 252; 253. 
World, Raleigh's History of the, 106. 
World, The, 127. 
Worthies of England, The, 130. 
Wyatt, Sir Thomas, account of, 74-76; 

and Surrey introduce Italian regard 

for form, 74, 82, IOO, IOI. 
Wyclif, John, account of, 41-43; por- 
trait, 41; 51. 

York, map 1, Db; 16. 



AMERICA'S LITERATURE 



Abbott, Jacob, account of, 382: 385: 
386. 

Abbott, John S. C, 311. 

Adam, 262 ; 379. 

Adams, Henry, 380, 385. 

Adams, John, 276. 

^Eneid, imitated by Mather, 267. 

Ages, The, 297. 

Al Aaraaf 359. 

Albany, 373. 



Alcott, Amos Bronson, 302; portrait, 

3°3 5 315- 

Alcott, Lousia May, account of, 382- 

383 ; 385 ; 386. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, account of, 

372-373', 385- 
Alhambra, The, 290. 
Allan, John, 356. 
Allen, James Lane, 365 ; 384. 
America, 259, 278 ; as a subject for 



INDEX 



413 



literary composition, 273, 279-280; 

progress in, 286 ; 289 ; 290 ; 295 ; 296 ; 

298 ; 302 ; 341 ; 342 ; 344 ; 365 ; 368. 
American Flag, The, 298-299. 
American literature, beginning of, 260 ; 

271 ; 272. 
American Philosophical Society, 274. 
American Revolution, Sparks's History 

of 34 *• 

American Scholar, The, 305. 
Among the Hills, 320. 
Analogy of Religion, 321. 
Annabel Lee, 358. 
Annapolis, 342. 

Antiquity of Freedom, The, 297. 
Anti-slavery movement, 317-318 ; 325 ; 
326. 

Anti-slavery writers, 317-326. 

Apple Tree, The, 297. 

Arnold, Matthew, 359; 371. 

" Artemus Ward," 378. 

Arthur Mervyn, 284. 

Astor, John Jacob, 298. 

Atlantic Ocean, 289 ; 290. 

Atlantic Monthly, The, 334 ; founded 

336 ; 339; 368; 372. 

Autobiography, Franklin's, 276 ; 285. 
"Autocrat," portrait, 336 ; 337 ; 338. 
Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, 337; 
339- 

Baby Bell, 372. 

Baby's Age, 355. 

Bacon, Francis, 259. 

Ballad of the Trees and the Master, 

A, 360. 
Baltimore, 360 ; 382. 
Bancroft, George, 312; account of, 

341, 342 ; 343 ; 345 ; 346; 347 ; 349; 

350- 

Bancroft, Hubert Howe, 380 ; 385. 
Barbary, 286. 
Barefoot Boy, The, 320. 
Barlow, Joel, account of, 281-282; 
285. 

Barnum, P. T., 372. 

Bay Psalm Book, The, account of, 

261-262; 270 ; 271 ; 272. 
Beacon Hill, 304. 
Bede, 267. 

Bedouin Song, 369-370; 371. 
Beecher, Dr. Lyman, 321. 
Belfry Pigeon, The, 300. 
Belknap, Jeremy, 347 ; 350. 
Berlin, 342. 
Bells, The, 358. 

Biglow Papers, The, 333; 338-339; 
378. 

Biography since 1865, 380. 



Bird, The, 347. 
Bird, William, 270-271 ; 272. 
Blackstone, Sir William, 335. 
Blind Preacher, The, 352. 
Blithedale Romance, The, 313. 
Boston, 264; 266; 273; 275; 296: 

304; 312; 318; 355; 372. 
Boston Hymn, The, 306. 
Boston News Letter, The, 271. 
Bowdoin College, 311 ; 321 ; 328 ; 338. 
Boylston Prize, 336. 
Bracebridge Hall, 290. 
Bradford, William, 260 ; 271 ; 272. 
Bradstreet, Anne, account of, 263-264; 

271 ; 272.; 384. 
Bridge, Horatio, 312. 
Brook Farm, account of, 310-311 ; 313; 

315; 348. 
Brown, Alice, 366 ; 384. 
Brown, Charles Brockden, account of, 

284: 285 ; compared with Hawthorne, 

3 T 4- 

Browne, Charles Farrar, 378 ; 385 ; 
386. 

Bryant, Dr. Peter, 296. 

Bryant, William Cullen, account of, 

295-298 ; 300 ; 301 ; 369. 
Building of the Ship, The, 329. 
Bunker Hill, 324. 
Burlington, 291. 

Burnett, Frances Hodgson, 368 ; 383 ; 
384. 

Burns, Robert, Freneau compared with, 
283; 318. 

Burroughs, John, 380; portrait, 381; 
385- 

Butler, Bishop Joseph, 321. 
Butler, Samuel, Trumbull compared 
with, 281. 

Cable, George Washington, 384. 
Calhoun, John Caldwell, 352. 
California, 366 ; 373. 
Cambridge, 296; illustration, 327 ; 329 ; 
359- 

Cambridge Poets, The, 327-339. 

Camden. 374 ; 375. 

Carlyle, Thomas, 302. 

Cask of Amontillado, The, 357 ; 358. 

Cavalry Crossing a Ford, 376. ' 

Century, The, 368. 

Channing, William Ellery, 302 ; por- 
trait, 303 ; 315. 
" Charles Egbert Craddock," 365. 
Charleston, 352. 
Chambered Nautilus, The, 337. 
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 308. 
Cheever, George B., 311. 
Child, Francis James, 382. 



414 



INDEX 



Children, literature for, in colonial 
times, 264-265 ; in recent years, 382- 

383 ; 386. 

Choate, Rufus, 324; 325; 326. 
Cincinnati, 321. 

Civil War, 322 ; 353 ; 360 ; 378. 
Clark, William, 286. 
Clay, Henry, 352. 

Clemens, Samuel Langhorne, 379 ; 

385 ; 386. 

Clifford, in The House of the Seven 

Gables, 314. 
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 302 ; 305. 
Colonial Period, 259-272. 
Columbia, 280. 
Columbiad, The, 282 ; 285. 
Columbus, 379. 

Columbus, Life of, Irving's, 290. 
Commemoration Ode, 334. 
Common Sense, 278. 
Companions of Columbus, The, 290. 
Compensation, 304 ; 306. 
Concord, 305; 306; 311; 332 ; 382. 
Concord Fight, The, 306. 
Concord River, 308. 
Condensed Novels, 373. 
Confederate Army, 353; 360; 362. 
Connecticut, 280 ; 298 ; 320. 
Conquest of Canaan, The, 280; 285. 
Conquest of Granada, The, 290. 
Conquest of Mexico, The, 343. 
Conquest of Peru, The, 343. 
Conspiracy of Pontiac, The, 346. 
Constitution (frigate), 335. 
Constitution, of the United States, 
342. 

Contemplation, 264. 

Contentment, 337. 

Cooke, John Esten, 365 ; 384. 

Cooke, Rose Terry, 366 ; 384. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, account of, 

291-295; portrait, 292; 297; 298; 

300 ; 301 ; compared with Simms, 

352-353 ; 362. 
11 Cooper of the South," 352; 362. 
Cooperstown, 291 ; 294; 382. 
Cotter's Saturday Night, The, 319. 
Cotton Boll, The, 355. 
Courtship of Miles Standish, The, 

3 2 9; 338- 
" Crackers," 365. 
Craigenputtock, 305. 
Craigie House, 329 ; illustration, 330. 
Cranford, 368. 

Crawford, Francis Marion, 365 ; 384. 
Croakers, The, 298 ; 299. 
Crothers, Samuel McChord, 381. 
Culprit Fay, The, 298. 
Cummington, 295. 



Curtis, George William, 347 ; 348-349 ; 
350; 377; 385- 

Dana, Richard Henry, 296 ; 297 ; 347 ; 
35°- 

Dandelion, The, 334. 
Dante, 329 ; 382. 

Dartmouth College, 319 ; 335 5 336. 
Day of Doom, The, 262, 263; 272. 
Declaration of Independence, 273 ; 
278. 

Deerslayer, The, 295. 
Defoe, Daniel, compared with Poe, 
357- 

Delaware River, 375. 

Dial, The, 302; 315. 

Dictionary, Webster's, 349 ; 350. 

Diedrich Knickerbocker, 287 ; 288. 

Discoverer, The, 371. 

Dismal Swamp, 271. 

Divine Comedy, The, translated by 

Longfellow, 329 ; by Norton, 382. 
Donne, John, compared with Mather, 

267. 

Drake, Joseph Rodman, account of, 

298-299 ; 300; 301. 
Dream Life, 348. 

Dutch Republic, The Rise of the, 

Motley's, 344. 
Dwight, Timothy, 280; 281 ; 285. 

Each and All, 306. 
Easy Chair, 348 ; 350. 
Ecclesiastical History, Bede's, 267. 
Edinburgh, 274. 

Edwards, Jonathan, account of, 268- 
270 ; portrait, 269; 271 ; 272 ; 280; 
285. 

Eggleston, Edward, 366 ; 380 ; 384. 

Egypt, 3° 8 - 

Eliot, John, 270 ; 272. 

Elizabethan Age, 382. 

Elizabeth, Queen, 348. 

Elsie Venner, 337. 

Embargo, The, 295, 

Elmwood, illustration, 332. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 303 ; account 

of, 304-306; 307; 3° 8 ; 3*5- 

England, 259; 260; 262; 271 , 273; 
274; 283; 288; 2895293; 3025334; 

339 ; 342 ; 345 ; 35° ; 368. 

English and Scottish Ballads, 382. 
English Lands, Letters, and Kings 
348. 

Essay on the Human Understanding, 
268. 

Eternal Goodness, The, 320. 
Europe, 290 ; 299 ; 300 ; 304 ; 305 ; 
328 ; 341 ; 369 ; 379. 



INDEX 



415 



Eutaw Springs, 283. 

Evangeline, 329 ; 338. 

Evening Post, The, 28S ; 297; 301. 

Everett, Edward, 322-324 ; 325 ; 326. 

Every Saturday, 372. 

Exile's Departtire, The, 318. 

Fable for Critics, A, 333 ; 338. 
Fall of the Hotise of Usher, The, 
357- 

Farewell Address, Washington's, 278. 
•• Father of American History," 260. 
"Father of American Poetry,'' 297; 
301. 

Faust, translated by Taylor, 370. 

Federalist, The, 279 ; 285. 

Felton, Cornelius, 382. 

Ferdinand and Isabella, Prescott's 

History of the Reign of, 342-343. 
Fiction, recent, 364-368; 385. 
Fields, James T., 313. 
•First Church, of Boston, 304. 
Fiske, John, 380 ; 3S4 ; 385. 
Flood of Years, The, 297. 
Foote, Mary Hallock, 366-368 ; 384. 
Forbearance, 306. 
France, 273 ; 274 ; 288 ; 345 ; 350. 
Franklin, Benjamin, account of, 273- 

276; portrait, 274; 27S ; 285; 288. 
Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins, 366 ; 384. 
Free Press, The, 318 ; 326. 
Freneau, Philip, account of, 282-283 ; 

compared with Brown, 284; 285. 
Friends, 271. See Quakers. 
Fringed Gentian, The, 297. 
Froissart, Jean, 311 ; 360. 
Fuller, Margaret, 302. 
Fulton, Robert, 286. 
Furness, Horace Howard, 382. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 317; 318; 

319; 322; 325; 326. 
Gates Ajar, The, 366. 
" Geoffrey Crayon," 289. 
Georgia, 359 ; 365. 
Germany, 302 ; 341. 
Gilder, Richard Watson, 377 ; 385. 
Goldsmith, Irving's Life of, 290-291. 
Grandissimes, The, 365. 

Hale, Edward Everett. 384. 

Halleck, Fitz-Greene, account of, 298- 

299 ; 300; 301. 
Hamilton, Alexander, 278; portrait, 

279: 285. 
Hannah Binding Shoes, 376. 
Harper's Magazine, 348 ; 368. 
Harris, Benjamin, 264. 
Harris, Joel Chandler, 365 ; 384. 



Harte, Francis Bret, account of, 373- 

374; 385- 
Hartford, 321. 

" Hartford Wits," account of, 279-282; 
285. 

Harvard, 266; 271; 274; 297; 304; 
305 ; 306 ; 328 ; 329 ; 334 ; 335 ; 336 ; 

338 ; 339 ; 341 ; 342 ; 343 ; 382. 

Hasty Pudding, The, 282 ; 285. 
Haverhill, 318. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 304 ; account 
of, 310-315 ; portrait, 311 ; 315-316 ; 

349; 37°; 382. 

Hay, John, 376-377; 3*5- 

Hayne, Paul Hamilton, 352 ; account 

° f > 353-355 ; 362. 

Hayne, Robert Young, 324 ; 352. 
Henry, Patrick, 276-277 ; illustration, 

277 ; 285 ; Wirt's Life of, 352. 
Hepzibah, in The Hotise of the Seven 

Gables, 314. 
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 346 ; 

359; 380; 385- 
Hildreth, Richard, 347 ; 350. 
Historians of 1815-1865, 340-350. 
Historical novel, the, 368 ; 385. 
Histories, early American, 259-261 ; 

272. 

History since 1865, 380. 

History of New England, Palfrey's 

347 ; Winthrop's, 261. 
History of New Hampshire, Belknap's, 

347- J2 

History of Plymouth Plantation, 
Bradford's, 260. 

History of Spanish Literature, Tick- 
er's, 340. 

History of the American Revolution, 
Sparks' s. 341. 

History of the Pacific Coast, H. H. 
Bancroft's, 380. 

History of the Reign of Ferdinand and 
Isabella, Prescott's, 342-343. 

History of the Reign of Philip the 
Second, Prescott's, 343 ; 350. 

History of the U7iited States, Ban- 
croft's, 341-342 ; 350 ; Hildreth's, 
347- 

History of the United States Navy, 

Cooper's, 293. 
Holland, 260. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 327; 328; 

account of, 334-338; 339 5 377- 
Home as Found, 294. 
Home Journal, 300. 
Home Pastorals, 370. 
Hoosier Schoolmaster, The, 366. 
House of the Seven Gables, The, 313; 

3'4- 



416 



INDEX 



Howells, William Dean, 364 ; 384. 

How Santa Claus Came to Simpson's 
Bar, 373. 

Hudibras, M'Fingal, compared with 
281. 

Hudson, river, 290 ; 291 ; 298. 
Humblebee, The, 306. 
Humorous writings, 377-379 '■> 3^6. 
Hyperion, 328. 

Identity, yjz. 

Iliad, translated by Bryant, 297. 
Indiana, 366. 
Indian Bible, 270. 

Indians, studied by Parkman, 345 ; 
treated by Freneau, 283 ; by Brown, 
284; by Cooper, 293 ; by Simms, 
353 ; by Helen Hunt Jackson, 366. 

Innocents Abroad, 379. 

Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will, 
269. 

In School-Days, 320. 

Irving, Washington, account of, 287- 

291; portrait, 287; 293; 297; 300; 

301 ; 340; 345 ; 350; 377. 
Isles of Shoals, 376. 
Italy, 288. 

Jackson, Helen Hunt, 366 ; 384. 
James, Henry, 364-365 ; 384. 
Jay, John, 278; portrait, 279; 285. 
Jefferson, Thomas, 278 ; 285. 
Jewett, Sarah Orne, 366 ; 384. 
John of Barneveld, Life and Death of, 

Motley's, 345. 
Johns Hopkins University, 360. 
Johnston, Richard Malcolm, 365 ; 384. 
Jonathan and David, 366. 
Jonson, Ben, 269. 
" Josh Billings," 378. 
"Juvenile Book-Store," 382. 
Juvenile literature, 382-383 ; 386. 

Kentucky, 365. 
King Olaf, 299. 

Knickerbocker School, 286-301; 352. 
Knickerbocker's History of New York, 
288-289; 301. 

Lady or the Tiger, The, 368. 
Lake Country, 287. 
Lake Poets, 287. 
Lancashire, 368. 

Lanier, Sidney, account of, 359-362 ; 

363 ; 384- 

Larcom, Lucy, 376 ; 385. 
Last Leaf, The, 335. 
Leatherstocking, in several of Cooper's 
novels, 293. 



Leatherstocking Tales, 293. 

Leaves of Grass, 375. 

Lee, Richard Henry, 276 ; 285. 

Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The, 289. 

Letters of a British Spy, The, 352. 

Lewis, Meriwether, 286. 

Life and Death of John of Barneveld, 
Motley's, 345. 

Life and Writings of George Wash- 
ington, Sparks's, 341-. 

Life of George Washington, Irving's, 
290. 

Lincoln, Abraham, 322 ; Whitman's 

poem on, 374. 
Litchfield, 320. 

Literary activity of the present, 364 ; 
385- 

Literary progress, 383, 384. 

Little Beach-Bird, The, 347. 

Little Brothers of the Air, 380. 

Little Folks in Feathers and Fur, 380. 

Little Women, 302 ; 383. 

Liverpool, 313. 

Locke, David Ross, 378 ; 385. 
Locke, John, 268. 
London, 289. 

Longfellow, Henry v/adsworth, 267 ; 
305; 311; 315; 327; account of, 
328-332 ; influence of his transla- 
tions, 330, 334; 338; 339; 340; 

349 ; 350 ; 384- 

Louisiana Purchase, 286. 

Lowell, James Russell, criticism of 

Bryant, 297 ; of Willis, 300 ; 327 ; 

account of, 332-334 ; 338, 339 ; 377. 

Luck of Roaring Camp, The, 373. 
Lucy Books, 382. 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Emerson 

compared with, 306. 
M'Fingal, 281 ; 285. 
McMaster, John Bach, 380 ; 385. 
Macon, 359. 

Madison, James, 278 ; portrait, 279 ; 
285. 

Magazine article, 380, 381 ; 386. 
Magazines, the four monthlies, 368 ; 

for children, 383. 
Magnalia Christi Americana, 267. 
Maine, 311 ; 328. 

Man without a Country, The, 365. 

Marble Faun, The, 313; 316. 

Marblehead, 376. 

March, Francis Andrew, 382. 

Marco Bozzaris, 299. 

Marjory Daw, 372. 

" Mark Twain," criticises Cooper, 294- 

295 ; 382. See Clemens, S. L. 
Marshes of Glynn, The, 361. 



INDEX 



417 



Maryland, 352. 

Massachusetts, 260; 261; 272; 286; 
295 ; 296 ; 305 ; 324 ; 341 ; 349. 

Massachusetts Bay Colony, 261. 

Massachusetts Register, 334. 

Mather, Cotton, criticises Anne Brad- 
street, 264 ; account of, 266-268 ; 
compared with Edwards, 269; 271 ; 

272 ; 384- . 
Merrimack, river, 308. 
Merry's Museum, 383. 
Metamorphoses, 259. 
Metres, introduced by Longfellow, 331; 

338- 

Miller, Olive Thome, 380 ; 385. 
Minister's Wooing, The, 322. 
Minor authors of 1815-1865, 347-349 ; 
35°- 

Minor Knickerbocker Poets, 298-300. 

Minor poets since 1865, 376-377. 

Missouri, 379. 

Missouri Compromise, 317. 

Mitchell, Donald Grant, 347-348 ; 350 ; 

377 ; 385- 

Mosses from an Old Manse, 312. 
Motley, John Lothrop, 341 ; account 

of > 343-345 ; portrait, 344 ; 347 ; 349 ; 

35°- 

Mountain and the Squirrel, The, 306. 
Mrs. Malaprop, in Sheridan's Rivals, 
378. 

"Mrs. Partington," 378. 
Murfree, Mary Noailles,'3o5 ; 384. 
Murray, John, 289 ; 344. 
My Aunt, 335. 

National Period, 286-387 ; later years 
of, 364-386. 

Natty Bumppo, 293. See Leather- 
stocking. 

Neighbor Jackwood, 366. 

Newbury, 267. 

New England, 261 ; the literary leader- 
ship returns to, 300 ; 301 ; 302 ; 303 ; 

3*5; 317; 3 22 ; 324; 3 2 6; 3 2 7; 

338 ; 340 ; 349 ; stories of life in, 

366; Stedman's idyls of, 371 ; 382. 
New England, History of, Palfrey's, 

347; Winthrop's, 261. 
New England Primer, The, account 

of, 264-265 ; illustration, 265 ; 271 ; 

272; 384- 

New Hampshire, 324 ; History of Bel- 
nap's, 347. 
New Haven, 266. 
New Jersey, 291 ; 374. 
New Orleans, 365. 
Newspapers, colonial, 271. 
New World, 259 ; 289 ; 330. 



New York, 282 ; becomes a literary 
centre, 286-287 ; 288 ; 291 ; 297 ; 
298 ; 299 ; 301 ; 369 ; 382 ; group of 
poets, 372; 377. State, 291. 

New York Historical Society, 289. 

Nile Notes of a Howadji, 345. 

Nineteenth century, progress in early 
years of, 286. 

North America, 350, 

North American Review, 296 ; 334. 

Northampton, 268 ; 269. 

North Church, 266. 

Note-Books, 313 ; 316. 

Norton, Charles Eliot, 382. 

O Captain, My Captain ! 374 ; 375. 

Odyssey, translated by Bryant, 297. 

Ohio River, 321. 

Old Dominion, 365. 

Old Ironsides, 335 ; 336. 

Old Manse, 311. 

Oldtown Folks, 322. 

Old World, 260; 330; 350. 

One-Hoss Shay, The, 337. 

Opportunity, 377. 

Oratory of the Revolutionary Period, 
276-277, 285 ; of New England, 322- 
325, 326; of the South, 351-352, 
362. 

Oregon Trail, The, 345. 

Otis, James, 276 ; 285. 

Our Young Folks, 383. 

Outre Mer, 328. 

Overland Monthly, The, 373. 

Ovid, 259. 

Oxford, 274. 

Pacific Coast, H. H. Bancroft's History 

of the, 380. 
Pacific Ocean, 373. 
Page, Thomas Nelson, 365 ; 384. 
Paine, Thomas, 278 ; 285. 
Palfrey, John Gorham, 347 ; 350. 
Parker, Theodore, 302 ; portrait, 303 ; 

315- 

Parkman, Francis, 341 ; account of, 
345-347; portrait, 346; 347; 349; 

350 ; 384- 

Parrhasius, 300. 
Parton, James, 380 ; 385. 
Past, The, 297. 
Paulding, James K., 288. 
Peabody Symphony Orchestra, 360 : 
363- 

Pencillings by the Way, 300. 
Pennsylvania, 273 ; 370. 
Pennsylvania, University of, 274. 
Personal Memoirs of Joan of Arc, 
379- 



4i8 



INDEX 



" Petroleum Vesuvius Nasby,' 2 378. 
Pearl of Orr's Island, The, 323. 
Phebe, child-friend of Whittier, 320. 
Phebe, in The House of the Seven 

Gables, 314. 
Phi Beta Kappa oration, Emerson's, 

305 ; 315- * 

Phi Beta Kappa Society, 297. 

Philadelphia, 273 ; 276 ; 284 ; becomes a 
literary centre, 286; 301 ; 3S2. 

Philadelphia Library, 274. 

Philip the Second, History of the Reign 
of, Prescott's, 343 ; 345 ; 350. 

Phillips, Sampson and Co., 336. 

Phillips, Wendell, 324 ; 325 ; 326. 

Pierce, Franklin, 312; 313. 

Pike County Ballads, 377. 

Pilgrims, leave Holland, 260 ; 266. 

Pilgrim' 1 s Progress, The, 311. 

Pilot, The, 293. 

Pioneers, The, 293. 

Pioneers of France in the New 
World, 346. 

Plymouth, 260 ; 266 ; 295 ; 324. 

Plymouth Plantation, Bradford's His- 
tory of, 260. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, compared with 
Brown, 284 ; with Taylor, 369 ; with 
Lanier, 361 ; account of, 356-359 ; 
362. 

Poems of the Orient, 369. 
" Poet-laureate of the South," 353 ; 362. 
Poetry since 1865, 368-377; 385. 
Political pamphlets and essays of the 

Revolutionary Period, 278 ; 285. 
Poor Richard's Almanac, 275-276 ; 

285. 

Pope, Alexander, 283. 
Portland, 328. 
Precaution, 292. 

Prescott, William Hickling, 341 ; ac- 
count of, 342-343 ; 345 ! 347 ; 349 ! 
350- ■ 

Present Crisis, The, 334. 

Prince and the Pauper, The, 379. 

Princeton, 269. 

Professor, The, 337. 

Prospect of Peace, The, 281. 

Prue and I, 348. 

Psalm of Life, A, 329. 

Psalms, 261 ; 262. 

Puritans, 260. 

Quakers, 317 ; 318; 319. 

Rainy Day, The, 331. 

Ramona, 366. 

Raven, The, 358 ; 362. 

Realism in Fiction, 364 ; 365 ; 366 ; 385. 



Reaper and the Flowers, The, 329. 

Renaissance, the, compared with tran- 
scendentalism, 303. 

Repplier, Agnes, 381. 

Reveries of a Bachelor, 348. 

Revolution, the, 293 ; 340. 

Revolutionary Period, 273-285 ; 286. 

Rhodora, The, 306. 

Riggs, Kate Douglas Wiggin, 366 ; 384. 

Rip Van Winkle, 289; 314. 

Rise of the Dutch Republic, The, Mot- 
ley's, 344; 345. 

Rivals, The, 378. 

Rivulet, The, 297. 

Rogers, John, 264. 

Rollo Books, 382. 

Rome, 332. 

St. Nicholas, 383. 
Salem, 312 ; 315. 
Salmagundi, 288. 
Sandpiper, The, 347. 
Sandys, George, 259. 
Saturday Afternoon, 300. 
Savoy, 282. 

Scarlet Letter, The, 313; 315-316; 
349- 

Schelling, Felix Emanuel, 382. 
Scholarship of late years, 381, 382. 
Schouler, James, 380; 385. 
Scott, Walter, 289 ; Irving compared 

with, 290. 
Scribner's Magazine, 368. 
Scudder, Horace Elisha, 380 ; 385. 
Sebago Lake, 311. 
" Senator of Rome," 352. 
September Gale, The, 335. 
" Severall Poems," account of, 263-264 ; 

illustration, 263. 
Sewall, Samuel, 268; 271; 272. 
Shakespeare, William, 259; 318; 333; 

360. 

Shaw, Henry Wheeler, 378 ; 385. 
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 378. 
Shillaber, Benjamin Penhallow, 378 ; 

385; 386. 
Short story, the, 368 ; 385. 
Sill, Edward Rowland, 377 ; 385. 
Simms, William Gilmore, account of, 

352-353 ; portrait, 353 ; 362. 
" Simple Cobbler of Agawam, The," 

270. 

Single poems, writers remembered by, 
386-387. 

Skeleton in Armor, The, 329; 338. 
Sketch Book, The, 289-290; 293; 301. 
Smith, John, 259. 

Snow-Bound, 319-320 ; illustration, 
320 ; 326. 



INDEX 



419 



Snow-Storm, The, 306. 
Song from a Drama, 371. 
Song of Hiawatha, The, 329; 338. 
So7ig of the Camp, 370. 
Song of the Chattahoochee, 361. 
South America, 311. 
Southern writers of 1815-1S65, 351- 
363- 

Spain, 290 ; 334 ; 339. 

Spanish Literature, History of, Tick- 

nor's, 340. 
Sparks, Jared, 340, 341 ; 349 ; 350. 
Spectator, The, 275 : 288. 
Spelling-book, Webster's, 349 ; 350. 
Spenser, Edmund, 311. 
Spy, The, 293; 301. 
Stamp Act, 271 ; 272 ; 273 ; 285. 
Stedman, Edmund Clarence, account 

of, 371-372 ; criticism of Celia Thax- 

ter, 376 ; 385. 
Stockbridge, 269. 

Stockton, Frank Richard, 365 ; 368 ; 

378 ; 384 ; 385. 
Stoddard, Richard Henry, 369; 370; 

385- 

Stowe, Calvin E. 321. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, account of, 

320-322 ; 325 ; 326. 
Summer Shower, A, 328. 
Sumner. Charles, 324 ; 325 ; 326. 
Sunnyside, 290; illustration, 291. 

Tales of a Traveller, 290. 
Tanglewood Tales, 313. 
Tarrytown, 290. 

Taylor, Bayard, account of, 369, 370 ; 
37i ; 385- 

Telling the Bees, 320. 

Tennessee, 365. 

Tennyson, Alfred, 355. 

" Tenth Muse, The," 263; 264. 

Thackeray, William Makepeace, criti- 
cism of Irving, 291. 

Thanatopsis, 296 ; 297 ; 301 ; 369. 

That Lass 0' Lowrie's, 368. 

Thaxter, Celia, 347; 376; 385. 

Thoreau, Henry David, account of, 306- 
310; portrait, 307; illustration, 310; 
315; 38o. 

Ticknor, George, 328 ; 340 ; 350. 

Ticknor and Fields, 355. 

Timrod, Henry, 352 ; account of, 355— 

356 ; 362. 

To a Waterfowl, 296 ; 297. 
Transcendental Club, 302. 
Transcendentalism, "notes of," 302; 

influence of, 303 ; 315. 
Transcendentalists, account of, 302- 

3*6; 317; 348- 



Translations, Bryant's Iliad,zr\<l Odys- 
sey, 297 ; Longfellow's, 329-330, 340, 
350; Norton's Divine Comedy, 382; 
Taylor's Faust, 370. 

Trowbridge, John Townsend, 366 ; 382 ; 
384- 

Trumbull, John, 2S0-281 ; 285. 
Twice-Told Tales, 312. 

Ulalume^ 359. 

Uncle Remus, 365. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, 321-322 ; 326. 

Union, 286 ; 317. 

United Netherlands, 345. 

United States, 280; 286; 321; 322; 
340; 342; 352; 366; History of the, 
Bancroft's, 341-342,350; Hildreth's, 
347- 

United States Naval Academy, 342. 
United States Navy, 293, History of 

the, Cooper's, 293. 
Unseen Spirits, 300. 

Vaughan, Henry, 347. 
Verse, early colonial, 262 ; 272. 
Very, Jones, 377 ; 385. 
Views Afoot, 369. 
Virginia, 259 ; 365. 
Vision of Columbus, The, 282. 
Vision of Sir Latinfal, The, 332 ; 333 ; 
338. 

Voices of the Night, 329 ; 338. 

Walden, 309 ; 315. 
Walden Pond, 307. 
Wall Street, 371. 

Ward, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, 366 ; 
382; 384. 

Ward, Nathaniel, 270 ; 272. 

Warner, Charles Dudley, 377 ; 385. 

War of 18 1 2, its effect upon the Re- 
public, 286 ; 340 ; 350. 

Washington, the city, 289 ; 335. 

Washington, George, 278 ; 285 ; Life 
and Writings of, The, Sparks's, 
341 ; Life of, Irving's, 290. 

Webster, Daniel, account of, 324-325 ; 
326; criticism of Calhoun, 352. 

Webster, Noah, 349 ; 350. 

Week 07i the Concord and Merrimack 
Rivers, A, 309 ; 315. 

West Point, 356. 

Whipple, Edwin Percy, 347 ; 350. 
White, Captain Joseph, 325. 
Whitman, Walt, account of, 374-376 ; 
385-386. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, 267 ; com- 
pared with Woolman, 271 ; account 
of, 318-320 ; 325 ; 326. 



420 



INDEX 



Whittier, Mary, 318. 

Wide Awake, 383. 

Wieland, 284 ; 285. 

Wigglesworth, Michael, account of, 

262-263 ! 27 1 ! 2 7 2 - 
Wild Honeysuckle, 283. 
Williams College, 295. 
William the Conqueror, 348. 
Williams, Roger, 270 ; 272. 
Willis, Nathaniel Parker, account of, 

299-300 ; 301 ; 383- 

Winsor, Justin, 380 ; 385. 



Winthrop, John, 261 ; Mather's story 

of, 267-268 ; 271 ; 272. 
Wirt, William, 352 ; portrait, 351 ; 362. 
Wonder-Book, The, 313. 
Woodnotes, 306. 
Woolman, John, 271 ; 272. 
Worcester, 341. 
Wordsworth, William, 305. 

Yale College, 274 ; 281 ; 292. 
Yemassee, The, 352, 353 ; 362. 
Youth's Companion, The, 383 ; 386. 



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